Public Health P1. P2

Public Health – Unit 12 – Petra P1 Public health is â€Å"the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals† (1920, C. E. A. Winslow). This therefore infers public health is the preventing and controlling of disease within communities, to prolong life and promote health through organised society.The keys aspects of public health †¦ -Monitoring the overall health status of the population, this involves the recording of any changes of health in the population and alerting people to potential risks, for example the higher levels of smoking within a population. -Identifying the health needs within a population, which involves establishing patterns and trends of health problems within to identify implications service users may be at risk of, for example in relation to smoking, assessing the likely increase in need for cancer support services. Developing programmes to reduce the risk and screening for diseases earlier on, which refers to the attempts of reducing the levels of illness, by introducing new programmes which inform people that they are at risk of certain conditions and aiding them into trying out new preventative programmes? For example if a doctor identifies someone at risk from cancer due to smoking, they may enrol them on a programme to help stop smoking, or even provide them with medication to stop them smoking. -Controlling of communicable disease.This is the reduction of the impact of infectious disease, through immunisation and other control methods. For example, vaccinations against measles, mumps and rubella, it may also include food hygiene in restaurants and other food suppliers preventing food poisoning. – Health promotion to the population. This can be done by events and activities which reduce health implications. For example, for people suffering with obe sity, it may involve campaigns to encourage people to be more active and eat a better diet, like the 5 a day campaign. Planning and evaluating the provision of health and social care, which involves assessing health services and whether or not they are having enough impact on the initial problem, for example in the case of obesity, it may involve the question of, can local services meet the demand of weight management advice, or are the services being successful in helping people to reduce their weight and endure that change. P2 Public health has grown and improved since its creation in the 19th century.It was created from the Poor Law system and the Victorian sanitary reform movement. The Poor Law was in place, to ensure people of the lower working class(poor people) were being housed properly, whether it were in workhouses or their own homes, it also ensured they were appropriately clothed and fed a sufficient amount of food. In a lot of workhouses, children were also schooled a l ittle, and in return for this treatment, the working class would be obliged to work for several hours a day.During industrialisation and the fast growth in cities, standards began to fall, which led to many concerns involving poor housing, dirty water supplies and air pollution ‘bad air’ and the immense impacts this had on the health of the work population all together. Origins of the public health policy in the UK from the 19th Century to present day†¦ The nineteenth century;- The first national Public Health Act 1848 This was created and put into place, due to a man known as Edwin Chadwick. He was an active campaigner on many public health issues, such as the poor working/housing conditions and the sanitary reform.His report in 1842 included a massive amount of evidence supporting the link between environment, poverty and ill health. He recommended that each local authority required an expert medical and civil engineering advice, to administer all sanitary matter s. It took six years until the Public Health act was passed and the first Board of health was established. John Snow and the Broad Street pump John Snow was a man whom believed that the water pollution was the main cause of ill health within the population of London in the 19th Century. He linked the common illness cholera to people whom drank from the wells.He observed those getting ill and which areas and pumps they drank from and recorded it on a map, he was then able to establish all those getting ill were in fact drinking from the same pump, and consequently in 1854 John Snow removed the handle of the Broad Street pump and ceased the epidemic of Cholera in Soho, London John Simon and the 1866 Sanitary Act John Simon was professionally a physician, but he became famous for him dramatic reforms of the public health system. He was the first medical officer in the UK’s central government, and he influenced public health by improving public vaccination systems.He also was the founder of the water supply cleaner and made sewers more effective. The twentieth century The Beveridge Report 1942 William Beveridge was a man whom was asked by government to write a report on the best and most effective ways to help those on low incomes. This was after the Second World War when people felt they needed rewarding, which the government responded to by promising to create a more equal society. In Beveridge’s report in December 1942, he proposed that all people of a working age should contribute, which would benefit people who were sick, unemployed, retired, or widowed.The National Health Service (NHS) The NHS was created on the back of the Beveridge report. This allowed free care to those who could not afford it. It provided hospital services, primary care (doctors- family clinics) and community services such as health visitors, midwives, ambulance services and many more. Acheson Report into inequalities in health 1998 He comprised a report that pointed out 39 recommendations and highlighted 3 crucial areas of which would need concentrating on, which are; 1) all policies that are likely to have impact on health should be evaluated in terms of their impact on health inequality. ) Priority to the health of families with children. 3) Further steps should be taken to reduce the income inequalities and improve the standards of poor households. Our Healthier Nation 1999 This strategy was released by the labour government after their election in 1997, it has very clear links with the Acheson report and attempted to tackle the root causes of ill health such as pollution, unemployment, low wages, crime and poor housing.Choosing Health: Making Healthy Choices Easier 2004 This white paper acknowledged the changing nature in society, and an increased emphasis on health and well-being. The strategy had three key underpinning principles: informal choice, personalization and working together. Its main priorities were: to reduce the number of people who smoke, reduce obesity and improve diet and nutrition, increase exercise, encourage support of sensible drinking and the improvement of overall sexual health.

Fisheries Society Essay

Fish is the major source of food worldwide and the main supply of protein; it is consumed by many people from almost all backgrounds. Fish is obtained by fishing using different types of methods; the techniques used for fishing are both old and new ones, but all of them have negative impacts on both fish and the environment. Impacts on the environment by wild stock fish harvesting depends on the techniques used for harvesting and the place where the species are found, harvesting techniques are divided into active or passive depending on whether the fishing gear is propelled or towed in pursuit of species or target species move into or forwards the gear. In active gear technique a vessel tows a net trawl or dredge through the water or on the seabed, dredges are used to capture sedentary species that live and feed on benthic habitats while trawls ate towed beneath the water immediately above the seabed. Trawls and dredges sometimes are designed with ticker chains that disrupt the seabed surface to induce the target species flee upwards into the water column and get trapped into the net or to fluidize the sediment of the sea for the tickler chains to penetrate deeper and harvest the fish deep in the water. Trawling and dredging are meant to reduce the roughness of the seabed to depths above 6cm within the sediment, but on large scale it changes to benthic habitats and the fishing structure of a given community but depends the type of target species, gear used and organisms affected for instance sea urchins are more likely to be fatal. Gears differ in sizes, they can be large and heavy and can be towed up to approximately 13 km/hr and it take years to recover when an impact occurs, at the same time the gears have a high magnitude although, the disturbance caused by the magnitude depends on benthos and the changes to benthic structure can be permanent, this disturbance cannot be compared to natural physical disturbance. Severity of impacts remains unknown in areas of high-grading, black-market sales ad by-catch where large fish deaths occur. Trawls and dredges rip up the sea bed considering that they are not better placed than purse seine in targeting species. Gill nets target on fish accumulating both small and large sizes but fish that are too small for mesh swim through while large sizes are not caught; In order to increase the surface area targeting large fish, the length of headline to the length of the stretched net can be set too low, and the net hangs slacks, this makes the net less selective and entangles the fish but as drift nets pelagic shark fish near the surface or mid-water or to catch demersal species with the gill the net sets and gets close to the seabed. Seals, dolphins, turtles and dugongs can be caught and get killed in gill nets, however this depends on the region and fishery, and sometimes infest them leading to eventual death. Gill nets are hazard to dolphins, whales, turtles, sharks and fish when lost for they remain buoyant and continue fishing untended for a good number of years. Pots and traps affect ecological effects and food web is disturbed as a result of overshing of rock lobster may result in population explosion of sea urchins and consequently the disruption in trophic structures. The long lines deployed to catch pelagic species, they consist of long lines with baited hooks attached to shorter ones, they catch seabirds and the devices for reducing bird catches fannels and shuts do introduce lines and hooks below the sea surface and the change in prey abundance changes the diet of birds and foraging time; change in food web predator-prey interactions the trophic structure and diversity; for example the over harvesting predator species of sea urchins results in overabundance of sea urchins and the decimation of kelp beds; known as urchin barren grounds it results in loss of habitat structure, loss of primary and secondary production, and all tropic structures and barren areas of sea floor, consequently a fast growing species also may become dominant with increased pressure an lower trophic levels and local extinctions will occur and the target species becomes uneconomical even before depletion occurs. 5. Introduction The use of marine reserve was banned by the f isheries management allowing fleet and gear techniques. However many fisheries have collapsed worldwide as a result, illustrating the vulnerability of fishery resources and showing that these methods are ineffective. But marine reserves would generally increase yields; especially at the high fishing mortality that occurs in most fisheries, but the most interesting feature or reserves is their ability to provide resilience to overexploitation and therefore reduces the risk of stock collapse and therefore the best management option. Benefits of reserves are increased biomass and individual size within the wild stock, resulting in adult migration and larvae dispersal which replenishes fishing grounds. The use of marine reserve necessitates a thorough understanding of critical habitat requirements, fish movement, the behavior of fish, the relationship between subpopulations and the critical density effect for larvae dispersal. When marine reserve is properly designed in conjunction with other management practices reserve has the capability of providing better ‘insurance’ against uncertainties in stock assessment, fishing control and management by protecting a part of the population from exploitation, it can be the best strategy to be used both for sedentary and migratory species. The unwanted by catch is one of the main environmental effects of fishing and on a global basis the scale has large effects. UN Food and Agriculture organization (FAO) For instance in 1996, estimated annual global discards at about 27 million metric tones, of an equivalent of approximately 25% of reported annual production from fisheries. However the recent updated figure is taken to be 7. 3 million metric tones and this large reduction in bycatch is thought to be the result of use of more selective gears, introduction of by catch and discard regulations and their enforcement and increased utilization of the catch with improved processing technologies and expanding market opportunities; the bycatch varies between different fisheries, for demersal finfish fisheries account 36% of global discards while shrimp fish fisheries account for 27%, whilst together. These fisheries represent 22% of total landings. But on the contrary low by catch levels are associated with purse seines, hand lines, jig, trap and pot fisheries. 6. Introduction Stock enhancement bypasses early density dependent on food, habitat and predation and density independent factors like water, temperature, patterns of migration, oceanographic and conditions of early stages of life. There is dramatic decrease in mortality when compared to wild populations. Restocking has biological, disease, genetic, environmental, ecosystem and socio-economic impacts risks and the level of each risk vary significantly between species and releasesing sites, depending on stocking a sessile versus mobile species, native versus exotic; confined versus open water; type of predator prey interactions that is associated with the activity variables. Success of stocking will depend on pre-release conditioning and carrying out pilot studies to determine optimal release times, sites and size. Expansion of market over the short term after successful introductions as a result increases pressures on wild stock in case of less successful introductions and on sustainable environmental, genetic and economic perspectives the gains are not significant. Competition between wild fish and farmed stock depends on the density of fish and availability of resources which are directly influenced by stocking. The genetically homogenous reared fish dilutes the wild gene and thus introducing unfavorable genetic traits into wild stocks like in the case of Black bream from Moore River into swan increased susceptibility to disease and reduced growth rate of wild stocks. Restocking pollutes the environment and it affects farmed stock and the native species decreases due to competition for food any resources as seen with Galaxiidue as a result of introduction of rainbow trout, how one of the most seriously ‘threatened species’. The bacteria, viruses or parasites into the receiving environment with largely unknown potential effects wild stock like more than 30 world populations of wild salmon have been wiped out by gyradactylus salaries that were released from hatcheries. Consequently invasion by exotic species from hatcheries environment had lead to altered tropic structures, although diagnostic technologies prior to release and rise of quarantine stations may reduces chances of spreading diseases but it relies on knowing what pests or diseases to test so it is which in itself is uncertainty. The higher exploitation rates resulting from stocking results in over exploitation of remaining wild populations, which eventually endangers the viability of wild stock and diminished genetic pool. At the same time the structures involved with aquaculture can provide a habitat for invasive species which can eventually get transported on boats, and recess that service aquaculture sites and the invasive species are transported across regions. In addition there is lack of success in attempting to stock oceanic species inculcating that stock enhancement for marine fin fish should be confined to estuaries. Lastly evaluation of stocking programmes takes a good number of years after which changes in environmental, ecological or financial issues late resulting in long-term viability diminishing. Conclusion Fishing causes phenotypic change in target species in heavily fished stocks, and the breeding population matures earlier and this allows species to continue smaller females generally produce fewer, less viable eggs with lower spawning and recruitment rates resulting in a smaller less fecund population. Certain conditions for restocking and resources are needed to be available like sand, sea grass or reef for the optimum survival of fingerlings. Survival depends on critical resources of food and habitat, and therefore requires knowledge of carrying capacity of site. Summery Impacts on the environment by wild stock fish harvesting depends on the techniques used for harvesting and the place where the species are found; harvesting techniques are divided into active or passive depending on whether the fishing gear is propelled or towed in pursuit of species or target species move into or forwards the gear. In active gear technique a vessel tows a net trawl or dredge through the water or on the seabed, dredges are used to capture sedentary species that live and feed on benthic habitats while trawls ate towed beneath the water immediately above the seabed. Trawls and dredges sometimes are designed with ticker chains that disrupt the seabed surface to induce the target species flee upwards into the water column and get trapped into the net or to fluidize the sediment of the sea for the tickler chains to penetrate deeper and harvest the fish deep in the water Stock enhancement bypasses early density dependent on food, habitat and predation and density independent factors like water, temperature, patterns of migration, oceanographic and conditions of early stages of life. There is dramatic decrease in farmed mortality when compared to wild populations. Restocking has biological, disease, genetic, environmental, ecosystem and socio-economic impacts risks and the level of each risk vary significantly between species and releasesing sites, depending on stocking a sessile versus mobile species, native versus exotic; confined versus open water; type of predator prey interactions that is associated with the activity variables. Success of stocking will depend on pre-release conditioning and carrying out pilot studies to determine optimal release times, sites and size. Expansion of market over the short term after successful introductions as a result increases pressures on wild stock in case of less successful introductions and on sustainable environmental, genetic and economic perspectives the gains are not significant. Competition between wild fish and farmed stock depends on the density of fish and availability of resources which are directly influenced by stocking. The genetically homogenous reared fish dilutes the wild gene and thus introducing unfavorable genetic traits into wild stocks like in the case of Black bream from Moore River into swan increased susceptibility to disease and reduced growth rate of wild stocks. References Beverton R. J. H. & Holt S. H. (1993). On the dynamics of exploited fish populations . Fish and Fisheries Series 11, Chapman & Hall, London. Hilborn, R & Walters, C. J. (1992). Quantitative Fisheries Stock Assessment. Choice, Dynamics and Uncertainty. Chapman & Hall, N. Y. Murphy B. R. & Willis D. W. (1996). Fisheries Techniques, 2nd Edition.. American Fisheries Society, Maryland, USA.

Project Management Email Individual Paper Essay

With the available information from the previous email regarding the projects of Juniper, Palomino and Stargazer, I feel it is in the company’s best interest to go with the Palomino project moving forward. The reason for not selecting the other two options is because Juniper carries too low of a risk for completion. Stargazer is not worth the high risk of completion and the unfamiliarity of how the final product will be with the customer. The method applied for making this decision was by utilizing the feasibility study. The main purpose of this is because using this project would have to make sense to the company as a whole. Answering all of the questions on Return On Investment (ROI), length of project, risk and overall benefit to Piper Industries. Using the feasibility study for the Juniper and Stargazer projects, it was a basic understanding that previously mentioned material would not be present as with the Palomino model. There are five different phases in project management that involve the  Palomino project and those are (Jacobs & Chase 2011): †¢Project conception and initiation: The main focus of this phase is to ensure the project being presented is realistic and will benefit the company. †¢Project definition and planning: The scope of the project will need an outline so the work which needs to be performed is available. Prioritizing, budgets and timelines are in this phase as well. †¢Project launch or execution: Tasks are assigned and each team is made aware of their responsibilities. †¢Project performance and control: The status and progress will be checked against the actual plan to ensure everything is running smoothly. The project manager will make adjustments as need to keep the original project on target. †¢Project close: Once all tasks are complete and the customer is content with the final product, a lesson learn plan will need to be established†¦ Content: Project Management Recommendation Name: Institution: Date: Dear Ray I duly received your email and we reviewed the three projects with my team. After critical analysis the board felt that the second project on your email (Palomino) was the best project for investment. The risk for completion is average; therefore, it does not put the company at a high risk of losing Dear Mr. Gritsch, Our team wants to thank Piper Industries Corporate vice-president, Wendell Deirelein, for choosing our team to analyze the projects. In the attached document you will find our analysis and recommendation of the Project Proposal that benefits your company. Thank you, Project Manager Project Management Recommendation Project to be Implemented Piper Industries needs a completed project and for it to be generating review within 12 month’s of the Project Management Office’s (PMO) review (University of Phoenix, 2012). The project that fits the company’s  requirements is the Stargazer project. The Stargazer project is efficient and the expectation of the project being completed on time is high. The research and development has already started on the widgets (University of Phoenix, 2012). According to the project descriptions, $450,000 has been spent on the product and they average a total of $575,000 being spent in order to bring the product to the market (University of Phoenix, 2012). Even though the dollar amount spent in this project is high, the return on investment for this project is high; by the third year the product is forecasted to have a return of investments of $750,000 (University of Phoenix, 2012). The product life of this project is forecasted to be 7 years (University of Phoenix, 2012). This product is still not being used, meaning Piper Industries will be the first company to launch the product to the market. By bringing such an innovative product into the marketplace, it can make Piper Industries the leader in the industry (University of Phoenix, 2012). Five Phases According to Stricker (2013), â€Å"Whether a project is large or small, the stages of a project are ultimately the same. Initiate the project, and then move into planning, followed by execution†¦. Project Management Recommendation Piper Industries Corp. wants to make a decision on the appropriate project to invest in based on three recommendations. First, Juniper is an enhancement of a current widget being offered by the company, while Palomino is a new line of widget products including enhancements using existing technology, and Stargazer is a production of completely new widgets, which research and development have already started on. The company assigned our team to analyze the three projects and make recommendations on which project the company should invest in. The recommendation must include our description of the five phases of the project and the key deliverables (project completion date and cost) for each project (University of Phoenix, 2013). The Project Recommendation Based on the break-even analysis for the Juniper project it basically shows the company will not, or barely break-even, during the life cycle of the production of these widgets due to technology advancements causing this product line to become obsolete after three years? It has a cost of $325,000 and Return on Investment only producing $250,000 for the two to three years of production with the third year being the end of life for this product. If the company chooses the Palomino project it will also have a hard time breaking-even and producing revenue streams over the life-time of the production with a 5% margin of error with the seventh year being the end of life for the product. The strength of the economy plays a large determining factor in this forecast due to 5% differential in the life cycle of this product. Palomino will cost $655,000 with the Return of Investment being $450,000 over a five year period with that 5%, plus or minus, margin of error. Profit would then start to be recognized in the sixth and seventh year of the life cy†¦ Thank you for choosing our team to analyze the three projects your company has proposed. After meeting with my team and analyzing the data of the three projects, we have to come to an agreement that the project your company should invest in is the Juniper project. Since your company is currently somewhat familiar with the product involved in this project, it will be more efficient and cost effective to continue the enhancement of this product. There are five phases of the project that must take place in order for the project to be a success. The first phase is the planning phase which includes a product approval and launch of the actual product development process. This also includes a mission statement that includes the target market of the product, business goals, key assumptions and constraints. The second phase is concept development. This phase is focused more on the needs of the target market, alternative product concepts which will need further testing and development. The concept is key in this phase because it describes the form, function and features of the product that are accompanied by a set of specifications and an economic justification for the project (Jacobs, pg. 74). The third phase is design detail which entails the specific parts of the product and all standard parts that are needed  from the supplier. This process also includes drawings and computer files that describe the geometry of each tool, purchased parts and process plans. The fourth phase is testing and refinement. This phase is includes construction and evaluation of multiple versions of the preproduction of the product. This is the time when we would be prototypes in order to determine if the product satisfies customer needs. The final phase is the production ramp-up. The product is made of intended production system. The purpose of the ramp-up is to get the workforce trained and to work out a remaining issues that may arise during the process such as†¦ Dear Mr. Gritsch: In continuation of your email dated February 10, 2014, I have completed analysis of three projects: Juniper, Palomino and Stargazer. The risk levels in Juniper, Palomino, and Stargazer are low, medium, and high respectively. It is in the best interest of Piper Industries Corporation to move forward with the Stargazer project. Stargazer is selected due to its feasibility and risk level. From market feasibility study, some strategic customers have already indicated interest in the product. Therefore, I would recommend that the board invest in the project, Stargazer; particularly because the company has already invested $450,000 and the ROI is very high. In continuation of your email dated February 10, 2014, I have completed analysis of three projects: Juniper, Palomino and Stargazer. The risk levels in Juniper, Palomino, and Stargazer are low, medium, and high respectively. It is in the best interest of Piper Industries Corporation to move forward with the Stargazer project. Stargazer is selected due to its feasibility and risk level. From market feasibility study, some strategic customers have already indicated interest in the product. Therefore, I would recommend that the board invest in the project, Stargazer; particularly because the company has already invested $450,000 and the ROI is very high. In continuation of your email dated February 10, 2014, I have completed analysis of three projects: Juniper, Palomino and Stargazer. The risk levels in Juniper, Palomino, and Stargazer are low, medium, and high respectively. It is in the best interest of Piper Industries Corporation to move forward with the Stargazer project. Stargazer is selected due to its feasibility and risk level. From market feasibility study, some strategic customers have already indicated interest in the product. Therefore, I would recommend that the board invest in the project, Stargazer; particularly because the company has already invested $450,000 and the ROI is very high. Stargazer is selected due to its feasibility and risk level. From market feasibility study, some strategic customers have already indicated interest in the product. Therefore, I would recommend that the board invest in the project, Stargazer; particularly because the company has already invested $450,000 and the ROI is very high. My feasibility study focused on Return on Investment (ROI), length of project, risk level and overall benefit to Piper Industries. See below for the results. Juniper: Return on Investment (ROI): 77% or $250,000 for a period of 2 to 3 years Length of project: Uncertain Risk of completion on time: Low Overall benefit: Enhancement of current product, increased product demand Palomino: Return on Investment (ROI): 69% or $450,000 for a period of 5 years Length of project: 7 Years Risk of completion on time: Medium Overall benefit: New product, use of existing technology, custom part, constant demand Stargazer: Return on Investment (ROI): 278% or $1,600,000 for a period of 3 years Length of project: 7 Years Risk of completion on time: High Overall benefit: Research & Development of a new product, market leader, project recommend that the board invest in the project, Stargazer; particularly because the company has Reference Jacobs, F. R. & Chase, R. (2011). Operations and Supply Chain Management (13th ed.) Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Management of Information Systems Unit 9 project Essay

Management of Information Systems Unit 9 project - Essay Example I have searched for the online computer system and printer. These are two main items those will be needed for the Eats2Go restaurant business information system handing. In this section I will present the detailed analysis of the Dell dimension 4600 Desktop computers for the Eats2Go restaurant business management system. Dell Dimension 4600 Desktop has a 2.66 GHz Pentium 4 processor, a 2 GB RAM, 320 GB hard disk and 8x DVD+RW drive. This system contains the â€Å"Creative Sound Blaster Audigy 2† Sound Card by Dell 5850 5.1 sound Speakers. There is facility Intel 10/100 Ethernet plus v.92 56Kbps Modem. The main faculty is the one FireWire and eight USB 2.0 Ports (cnet, 2009). The above given system specifications are tremendous, for the reason that we have 320GB of Hard disk space. Here we have build in RAM of 2 MB. This extensive disk space is really great for the Eats2Go restaurant information system handling. This system also has a high processing speed and better RAM support. So I will suggest this system for the Eats2Go restaurant handling and data and business control (Memoryupgrade, 2009). I have selected the printer for the Eats2Go restaurant business is HP LaserJet P1005. This printer has capacity of 1200 x 1200 dpi (dots per inch) and has the capability to print 15 pages per minute (Superwarehouse, 2009). This printer can have 150 Sheet Input Capacity. Main feature is its connection Via Hi-Speed USB (HP, 2009). Its price is $136 (Superwarehouse, 2009). For the company of Andrew Langston I have to research online for the wireless technology regarding its implementation at company. This wireless technology is aimed at enhancing the overall productivity of the business through offering a better and fast communication link among the different working departments, production areas and control rooms. I have conducted an online research and found that the fixed wireless technology is most significant for the establishment of the communication

Emotions in Conflict Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Emotions in Conflict - Coursework Example Also, the stress itself becomes a problem. Emotions of tension make the resolution process hard since the parties are not comfortable talking to each other. Emotions of sadness and hopelessness are also bad. The mediators may also experience emotions of favoritism and bias toward one party and this is very harmful for the other party because the final decision would be one-sided. Thus, it is important for the conflicting parties and also for the mediator to control their emotions. It is a misconception that emotions makes the parties understand each other. To remove this misconception, it is important for both the parties to know what emotions they are possessing. One party should know if the other party is angry or excited or if it is tense or relaxed itself. This helps build a strong communication platform where the two parties share their interests and goals and a better resolution is achieved. References Faw, B. (2009). Staying positive in negative times. New Hampshire Business R eview, Vol. 31 (25).

The Issues Surrounding Muslims in the West Term Paper

The Issues Surrounding Muslims in the West - Term Paper Example Still, it is quite unfortunate that the Western media has largely stuck to quite a prejudiced and controversial approach in portraying Muslims over time which has only served to aggravate the already devastated conditions encountered by masses of innocent Muslims living in the US and European countries. There is no denying the fact that everyday Muslims in the West are marginalized for the actions of a few extremist groups. It is an established however grave reality that in the present day world, more and more people are losing their patience with religions and all the vivacious debates that come along with them. People are tired of listening to animated critics arguing among themselves on whose religion is better than whom and do not care much about what is the reality of each major religion in this age of fierce competitiveness and materialism. Even the Western countries today cannot be called primarily Christian countries because the majority is composed of secular people leaning towards atheism. In such circumstances, it has become substantially hard for practicing Muslims living in the West to convey their message, fears, concerns, and requirements to largely unresponsive and nonchalant non-Muslim majorities. It is virtually impossible for them to get significantly unreligious non-Muslims to pay attention to the obstacles encountered by them let alone remake their minds about Islam. It is not just following 9/11, but long before that sorry incident Muslims in the Western countries have remained victims of unjustified aggression. However, it is true that western aggression and intolerance picked momentum after the 9/11 attacks and the rate of issues targeting innocent Muslims reached its climax. Despite many empty arguments put forward by prominent Western politicians that their problem is not with Islam, truth is that practicing Muslims are more under attack than non-practicing Muslims. Hijab is a highly sacred Islamic practice for Muslim women and the rou tine adamant Western contempt and criticism for this practice is highly objectionable.  

Role & Functions of Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Role & Functions of Law - Research Paper Example The famed writer of Civil Law, Sanchez Roman defined law as a rule of conduct, just, obligatory, laid down by a legitimate power for common observance and benefit. (Nolledo 1978, p. 1) Another requisite is the existence of a sanction or punishment in case of non-observance of the rule of conduct. The sanction may be in the form of either or some of the following: fine, imprisonment, forfeiture of rights and properties, payment of interest or surcharges, liability for damages, expulsion or deportation, and exile. Nolledo (1978) presented following characteristics of business law, to wit: (1) it is universal because it exists in every civilized society; (2) it is progressive because as time passes, business law accumulates new ideas and keeps abreast with modern trends; (3) it is equitable because business transactions involve exchange of values and considerations; (4) it is customary because its rules are followed from time to time or are invoked in every day transactions; and finally (5) it is uniform because within a country, a business act or contract is governed by the same rules. (p. 8) In an article written by Bushman (2007), she recognized the importance of law in the successful operation and existence of business and society. Accordingly, she stipulated that â€Å"laws regulate social behavior, which leads to a society that runs efficiently. Laws also supply ethical standards and expectations, while providing rules of conduct, measures to enforce those rules, and a means for settling disputes. According to Gillies (2004), â€Å"the formal view of law is that it functions to regulate human behavior in obedience to an infinity of different policies. In particular, it aims to regulate relations between persons for in a crowded society, people have to co-exist and occasionally their interests collide†. (p. 4) Other functions of law include: peacekeeping; checking government power and promoting personal freedom; facilitating planning and the

Summary of Chapter 1_The End of Risk-Free Rate Assignment

Summary of Chapter 1_The End of Risk-Free Rate - Assignment Example This is because the bonds provide funds for healthcare, education, law enforcement as well as other public requirements. The most common theories associated to risk free rate and from which other valuations are derived include modern portfolio theory (MPT) and the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). Additionally, the risk free rate functions in rare occasions since the MPT maintains that there is only one risk-free rate, which is the risk-free rate asset that pays a low rate. The risk free rate is used by MPT to determine the optimum portfolio. At the basic level, risk is said to be the probability of outcomes or events and is divided into three main categories that include absolute, default and relative risk. There have been attempts to use alternatives to the risk-free rate such as the T-bill that remains the best option since it was the closest investment to a short-term riskless security. The main reason why the risk-free rate has changed is the catastrophic events happening in most developed countries’ economies that include credit market collapses, stock market collapses, and wars. The valuation level of the risk-free rate can be determined or judged through the Fisher equation. The idea that treasury bills have yielded zero or negative in certain periods indicates that there is no real risk-free rate. On the other hand, there have been increased debts in major governments and the development of other aspects such as debt mutualization. This is because of realization of too little growth versus intense debts. In some instances, the total debt has exceeded the total GDP. Without growth, fiscal consolidation proves futile. Fiscal measures should be permanent to help in reduction of debt. If austerity is followed, it could take approximately 10 years to realize results. Debt ratio might increase by attempting to reduce it through austerity, which adds risk premium to government bonds over time. The market demand for safe assets has

How a person should be Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How a person should be - Essay Example Another approach in the direction of understanding truth goes with the name of interpretive analysis of situations and the conclusions that individuals and groups draw from their experiences are indeed identified as truths. But, in the view of this group’s conceptual understanding, the nature of truth wholly and solely depends on one’s experiences alone. The final approach towards gaining understanding of reality is called postmodernism that simply states that nothing is in-definitively true and vice versa and therefore, the gathering of information is going to determine the truths and facts of the present time. There was a time in past, when scientists believed that world is flat like a table and if ships were to go far into the sea then, they may fall from the edge of the world. However, with the passage of time, the featured belief changed and so did the human behavior towards reality (Klein pp. 26). The knowledge always changes, modifies, and transforms the basic se t of beliefs from which the complete social value system is based and because of this reason, when beliefs go through the process of change, then, the societal behaviors mold in such a way so that they can represent the newly formed assumptions. The Plato developed a way that thrived on gathering people’s opinion about a particular matter and then, the group attempted to develop a consensus and that agreed upon statement was given the status of divinity. But, if people’s experiences are recommending against the general statement then, it means that the reality is outdated and needs modifications. Thusly, the major and the most important approaches towards reality are based on human interpretation of events. The scientific experimentation technique introduced by early Muslim scholars was based on the due principle of experimentation and it supported the notion of experimentation via that the statements about reality can be proven and disproven (Rorty pp. 1). The real ch ange in the community occurs on a cognitive level and then, a new thought is shared slowly and gradually with others (Gladwell pp. 2). Ultimately, it reaches the people who have the appropriate level of power and authority needed to bring the change. Therefore, a small change in a thought pattern leads to a major one. But, nobody cares to tell the name of a person who originally gave the seed of change and because of this reason, real thinkers of the community remain unknown and unsung in most number of the cases. In the modern scientific literature, the researcher is free to fabricate hypothetical statements about an issue but he or she has to prove it with the help of empirical experimentation in order to derive generally acceptable statements. Nevertheless, the above-mentioned approach can be taken as monistic evaluation of interpretive assumptions about reality. The trend of change in human belief system over the passage of time is supporting that nothing is true forever and tha t is an elementary assumption of postmodernism (Rorty pp. 2). The previous discussion highlighted the fact that not all of the approaches towards reality are hostile to each other but they are indeed complimentary. The monistic way of thinking helps humans in standardization of realism so that public can understand and comprehend the world around them in a shared manner. The interpretive analysis of the situations helps

Research the negatives of Charter schools in LAUSD school system Paper

The negatives of Charter schools in LAUSD school system - Research Paper Example It is located in board district 1, local district 3, South Burnside Avenue, at 5100 Wilshire BLVD, in Los Angeles, CA. it serves approximately 300 students in grade 6-8. Charter schools have brought about criticism in education system especially in Los Angeles. The race of schools to provide quality education and maintain a position at the top has increased the support for charter schools in Los Angeles (Jack Buckley 3). The current struggle seen between LAUSD school board and union over charter schools represents the thirst for quality and top position. The quality of schools in Los Angeles is very low. They do o respond to the educational needs of the Los Angeles community. This observation clearly shows that something has to be done to bring a desired change. Despite the fact, that t it is clear that schools in Los Angeles need radical change, charter schools are not the answer for the required change (Jack Buckley 3). Charter schools have been criticized for not meeting the requi rements of the change required to solve the problem of low quality education in Los Angeles. Critics state that charter schools provide the best in terms of educational performance but still ignore important aspects of the society. The problem about charter schools started at the same time that charter schools began (Whitney 194). ... For instance, in a report compiled by UCLA civil rights project in 2003, Gary Orfield noted that people had an early concern with regard to the ability of charter schools to represent the minority (Whitney 95). They were concerned that charter schools would admit white students as they would escape diverse public schools. Others noted that charter schools would compromise public schools further to offer poor education to those who would not afford to pay for charter schools. In addition, this would result to discrimination of students based on the schools they occupy and consequently their social class in society (Whitney 195). Other people criticized charter schools stating that they are more business oriented than education oriented because they get their funding from a variety of sources that includes private investment. Private firms are allowed to fund Charter schools and can get profits when these schools perform. The schools are managed for profit. However, when charter school s fail to realize its target private investors leave for other business viable places. This means that the schools are closed thereby depriving students a right to continuous education (Jack Buckley 43). Therefore, some argued that the schools would promote profit-making ideals as opposed to educating children. Others argued that the profit would assist those schools achieve success. The government as well as private investors fund charter schools. They are funded through the federal categorical funding. They are opposed by teacher unions, antiracial groups and activists, private researchers and parents and students who favor public school system(Jack Buckley 43). According to Grading the Chartering Organizations, 2003, most states had a few resources for oversight

The Rules on Formation of Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Rules on Formation of Contracts - Essay Example The first thing next morning, Kevin went round to Jack’s house and, as soon as Jack opened the door, told him that he would pay  £2000 for the motorcycle alone. Jack said that he already sold it to someone else. The formation of a legally binding contract requires a valid offer, a valid acceptance, an intention to create legal obligations and consideration. An offer is a valid offer when it is legal, clear, and communicated to the offeree. It must be clear and without any ambiguities. Acceptance also needs to be properly communicated. The person to whom an offer is made must accept the exact terms of the offer. Once an offer is accepted, it becomes a promise. The parties must have an intention to be legally bound by the terms of their agreement. When an agreement becomes enforceable by law, it becomes a contract. There a must be a consideration for both the parties involved. There must be something for something for both the parties. If these elements are present in the given scenario, the dealing between Kevin and Jack would be regarded as an agreement and, being enforceable by law, a contract. The formation of a contract initiates through an offer which is â€Å"an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom it is addressed†1. In the given case, Jack sent a text message to Kevin in which he offered him a motorcycle for the price of  £2000. He communicated his offer to the addressee, Kevin, through a proper mode of communication. Also, there was no ambiguity in his offer since the subject matter was stated clearly. Therefore, Jack made a valid offer to Kevin. Jack had told Kevin that his offer was open for acceptance till 10 am on the next day. Kevin sent a reply to Jack in which he accepted Jack’s offer and asked if the price included a leather suit. Kevin had accepted Jack’s  offer in the first part of his text message.

Porters 5 Forces Analysis Essay Example for Free

Porters 5 Forces Analysis Essay Threat of New Entrants. The average person cant come along and start up a bank, but there are services, such as internet bill payment, on which entrepreneurs can capitalize. Banks are fearful of being squeezed out of the payments business, because it is a good source of fee-based revenue. Another trend that poses a threat is companies offering other financial services. What would it take for an insurance company to start offering mortgage and loan services? Not much. Also, when analyzing a regional bank, remember that the possibility of a mega bank entering into the market poses a real threat. Power of Suppliers. The suppliers of capital might not pose a big threat, but the threat of suppliers luring away human capital does. If a talented individual is working in a smaller regional bank, there is the chance that person will be enticed away by bigger banks, investment firms, etc. Power of Buyers. The individual doesnt pose much of a threat to the banking industry, but one major factor affecting the power of buyers is relatively high switching costs. If a person has a mortgage, car loan, credit card, checking account and mutual funds with one particular bank, it can be extremely tough for that person to switch to another bank. In an attempt to lure in customers, banks try to lower the price of switching, but many people would still rather stick with their current bank. On the other hand, large corporate clients have banks wrapped around their little fingers. Financial institutions by offering better exchange rates, more services, and exposure to foreign capital markets work extremely hard to get high-margin corporate clients. Availability of Substitutes. As you can probably imagine, there are plenty of substitutes in the banking industry. Banks offer a suite of services over and above taking deposits and lending money, but whether it is insurance, mutual funds or fixed income securities, chances are there is a non-banking financial services company that can offer similar services. On the lending side of the business, banks are seeing competition rise from unconventional companies. Sony (NYSE: SNE), General Motors (NYSE:GM) and Microsoft (Nasdaq:MSFT) all offer preferred financing to customers who buy big ticket items. If car companies are offering 0% financing, why would anyone want to get a car loan from the bank and pay 5-10% interest? Competitive Rivalry. The banking industry is highly competitive. The financial services industry has been around for hundreds of years, and just about everyone who needs banking services already has them. Because of this, banks must attempt to lure clients away from competitor banks. They do this by offering lower financing, preferred rates and investment services. The banking sector is in a race to see who can offer both the best and fastest services, but this also causes banks to experience a lower ROA. They then have an incentive to take on high-risk projects. In the long run, were likely to see more consolidation in the banking industry. Larger banks would prefer to take over or merge with another bank rather than spend the money to market and advertise to people.

Target Market for Dunkin Donuts

Target Market for Dunkin Donuts Target Market: The target market for my Dunkin Donuts are teens and working class people within the middle age bracket who are always on a tight schedule running to catch the bus, train or even drive to work/school. The target market demographics is: Teens who are between the ages of 15-18 Young adults who are between 18-45 years old. BlogSpot (2015) describes the consumer behaviour of this category of people as one that is highly consumption-oriented. What this means is that my category of consumers are ones who expect that their product purchase offers them the expected satisfaction and they are willing to spend reasonable amount in getting them. Recent research shows that teenagers and young adults have become increasingly aware of new products and often times seek out new products and they are natural triers and spend hours shopping for themselves (Shand,2016). Therefore, with the introduction of our new beverage flavours and snacks line, my target market will be quiet content to spend money for beverage and snacks that gets them prepared for their daily tasks at a reasonable price. For example, Dunkin Large Chai Tea Latte is sold for $3.75 as against $4.84 sold by Starbucks. Consumer buying behavior is described as the sum total of consumer attitudes, preferences, intentions, and decisions regarding the consumers behavior in the marketplace when purchasing a product or service(Study.com 2016). They recently introduced a stronger brew of coffee for their customers that like very strong coffee flavor. What are external forces of consumer behaviour? External forces of consumer behavior identified are not individualistic but rather are forces outside of the consumer. They are capable of influencing buying patterns of individuals. What this means is that these forces are external to the consumer. For example, for my target market, some of the external forces to consider are: culture, reference group and social class (Chand 2016). Culture and consumer behaviour: culture as it relates to consumer behaviour refers to the basic attitude of people in a certain nationality where an individual live. The target market of Dunkin donuts are people who have a culture of drinking tea or coffee especially during the winter. To encourage consumers to stay warm especially during the winter season Dunkin has introduced a new menu which incorporates incredible espresso drinks that are low in calories as well as the introduction of a stronger brew of coffee customers that like very strong coffee flavor.   This new item suggestion which is our remarkable offering will incorporate our plate of mixed green vegetable menus. This green menu is also dunkinsway of promoting the culture of healthy living which has become prevalent among teens and young adults. Vegetables for the new plate of mixed greens menu will be sourced straightforwardly from the homestead in this way guaranteeing they are new and firm. Reference group/People: Reference groups is described by study.com (2016) as groups of people that influence individuals attitude or behaviour. Consumer behaviour is affected by reference group in the sense that consumers use reference points for learning attitudes, behaviour, and adapt these in their life. Reference groups influence product and brand purchases, particularly when the consumption is conspicuous in nature. Where a product is conspicuously consumed, the brand chosen may be influenced by what buyers perceive as acceptable to their reference groups. Take for instance Dunkin has a loyalty program popular among young people where customers purchase one of Dunkin gift cards and you receive perk points. The gift card is free there is no fee to join the program when you reach 200 points you can select a free beverage any size of your choosing. Dunkin has an app where you can also put the gift card on your phone so that you dont have to worry about losing the card. Through their app you can see all their special promotions, you can receive double points if you shop in their stores between specified hours or if you purchase a coffee with a bagel. You can also place you order through the app and pick it up so that you dont have to wait on line, you pay for your order through the app its that easy. Basically, this consumer behaviour can help Dunkin create a community of Dunkin consumers with non members eager to join and take advantage of the opportunities offered. Social class: Social class as an important determinant of consumer behaviour as it affects consumption patterns, lifestyle, media patterns, activities and interests of consumers refers to how income differences affects an individual consumer choices and behaviours. Although preferences regarding products vary between individuals Dunkin Donut will strive to make its beverages, snacks and vegetables the one of choice among its target market with emphasis on healthy eating choices which is evident in out green and vegetable menus. consumers purchasing is impacted by four noteworthy mental elements that are recognition, learning, inspiration and demeanors. My key products are: Vegetable menu, Strong coffee and espressos. We have a number of confectionaries that consumers can choose from. In promoting healthy eating choices, green and vegetable menus are being pushed to our target market. Positioning my Donkin Donut products will require an understanding of what consumers require in relation to product needs and satisfaction. Realizing what client needs are and what is expected to make enhanced and achievement items: Through research, as identified in my earlier work, we have recognized that consumers require choices in confectionaries and a collection of drinks when they stroll into any Dunkin Donut shop. Buyers additionally require an unwinding and agreeable feeling as they make the most of their dinner or lunch. For my target group, the above identified external influences will be considered using SWOT analysis to help position Dunkin as the confectionary and beverage shop of choice. SWOT analysis stands for Strength, weakness, opportunities and threat. This analysis will be used through the following: Strength:   The strength of Dunkin Donut lies in the culture and consumer behaviour of the target customers. New products will be introduced and developed to reflect our encouragement of healthy eating choices, roll out of new flavoured beverages and hot tea for our target market and seasons special beverages will be introduced. Through consumer research, Dunkin Donut can identify specific consumers who fall within our target market group and offer them specific products in line with the prevailing consumer need. Research questions will include consumers attitude towards new products. Once that has been established, Dunkin will work towards rolling out new confectionaries and beverages for our target market. Weakness: One identified external weakness of Dunkin Donut is its positioning in the minds of consumers. Donkin Donut is considered after Starbucks. We will therefore be using this social class identification to segment my target market. For example, Dunkin Donuts target client is who fall between the 18-45 age category earn between $30,000 to $70,000 yearly therefore, we will have added value services for consumers who can pay more. For example, a cup of Chai tea latte can come with added flavour or topping at extra cost for the consumer who can afford it. As such, Dunkin Donut will be positioned favourably in the minds of our target market. Social class for Dunkin Donut will simply reflect optional choices that will cost more only at the choice of the consumer. Opportunities: The opportunity that will be used to drive Dunkin Donut is its reference groups/people classification which will be used to position Dunkin Donut because we will aim to create a community of Dunkin Donut customers through the development of our app and rewards programmes. A platform will be created for consumers to share their experiences, favourite Dunkin confectionary or beverage with Dunkin representative monitoring interactions and offering freebies, birthday shout outs and get well messages as they are shared on the platform. Through this reference group creation, we plan to have ambassadors of Dunkin Donut just as Beyoncà © has the beehives. We can have a community of strong coffee lovers community. This group will cater for consumers who love the traditional coffee taste. Another external influence that will be used to position Dunkin Donut is the Threats which presents itself in form of health and safety department regulation and control of foods for consumption. Dunkin Donut will display its health department grade A classification on its window so that consumers are aware that Donkin Donut serves the best beverage. Another important threat is security, there is heightened tension in places where people are gathered, therefore, Dunkin Donut will have a good presence of security personnel to ensure the safety of every customer. In conclusion, the external factors identified for Donkin Donut can provide a platform for targeted consumer satisfaction which will provide Donkin an opportunity to deal with every client exceptionally because at the end of the day, we need every visit to the Dunkin Donut store to be a wow experience. References BlogSpot.com. 2016. Good study: Consumer behaviour of young people. Retrieved from: http://goodstudy110.blogspot.com/2010/10/consumer-behavior-of-young-people.html. 12 January 2017. Chan, S., February 2016. 3 External Factors that Influences Consumer Behavior. Retrieved from: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/consumers/3-external-factors-that-influences-consumer-behavior/12908/. 12 January 2017. Dunking donuts.2016. Dunkin donuts. [Online]. Retrieved from: https://www.dunkindonuts.com/dunkindonuts/en/coffee/didyouknow.html. December 9 2016. Strategy.com. August 2016. Effective Customer Needs Analysis: Focus on the jobs-to-be-done and see customer needs differently.

Gate Control Theory Of Pain Health And Social Care Essay

Gate Control Theory Of Pain Health And Social Care Essay OA knee pain prevalence, cost to NHS etc. Physio treatment of neck painà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ electro modalities, esp TENS Pain is something that everyone suffers with at one time or another. Pain can be a huge burden on employers due to absenteeism (White et al, 2005). There are many methods used to relive pain with TENS being one method. Having completed a review of current literature, it is clear that the application of tens has a significant effect on the pressure pain threshold of a subject, however no study to date has researched the effects the positioning of the TENS being applied has on the pressure pain threshold. Therefore this study has the aim of investigating whether the positioning of the electrodes at the nerve root level will affect the pressure pain threshold of the relevant dermatomal area giving rationale for the use of TENS as a pain reliving modality for injuries to the extremities. Literature Review 4k Literature Search This research is investigating the effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation at a nerve root has on the pressure pain threshold at the periphery in relation to osteoarthritis of the knee. A review of the current literature was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, ScienceDirect, MetaLib (Cardiff Universitys Electronic Resources) and Google Scholar for journals dated 1982-2012. The main key words used in the search included, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, pain, osteoarthritis, knee, and periphery. Backchaining was also used to ensure all relevant literature was obtained. Introduction Osteoarthritis a very common joint disorder occurring in any joint but most commonly in the hip, knee, the joints of the hand and foot, and spine (Symmons et al. 2003). It mostly affects those aged 60 and over with approximately 40% of people over the age of 65 suffering symptoms associated with knee OA (Zhang et al., 2008) resulting in globally nearly 250 million people having osteoarthritis of the knee, 3.6% of the population (Vos et al. 2012). This resulted in osteoarthritis becoming the fourth leading cause of disability in the year 2000 (Symmons et al. 2003) and costing the NHS a total of 25 million pounds in 2008 (NICE 2008) Arthritis knee Osteoarthritis of the knee is a chronic degenerative disorder with a multifactorial aetiology (Felson, 2000). This includes general factors; such as age, sex and obesity, mechanical factors; such as alignment and trauma (cooper et al. 2000) and genetic factors (Reginato et al. 2002). Osteoarthritis of the knee is characterised by both loss of articular cartilage and by central and marginal new bone formation (subchondral sclerosis, osteophytes) (Woolf and Pfleger, 2003). There is also often thickening of the capsule and low grade synovitis resulting in alterations in biomechanics of the joint. Osteoarthritis affects the whole joint with secondary changes including ligament laxity due to articular cartilage loss and muscle weakness around the joint due to disuse respectively (Felson 2000). Osteoarthritis of the knee is associated with pain, joint stiffness and deformity, which in turn lead to limitations of daily activities for sufferers. Although there is currently no cure available, there are a number of treatment options open to sufferers to provide symptomatic relief, as well as joint function improvements. There are many non- pharmacological treatment options available such as education, rehabilitation exercises, manual therapies, acupuncture and electro-modalities such as TENS. There is also a wide range of pharmacological measures available, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, oral analgesia and topical treatments. Pharmacological treatments also include intra-articular modalities such as injections of corticosteroid and hyaluronic acid and tidal irrigation to reduce symptoms. In severe cases, where nonsurgical interventions have failed, more invasive approaches may be needed (Cooper et al 2000) including therapeutic arthroscopy and joint replacement. Models of Pain Pain something that the medical profession aims to alleviate in all patients suffering from it. In order to do this an understanding of the function of pain is needed as well as knowledge of the physiological processes the cause pain. Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage (Bonica 1979). It serves as a stimulus to motivate an individual to cease or withdraw form damaging or potential damaging situations, or to protect a damaged body part during the healing process (Winlow et al. 1984). There are three main models of pain, the cognitive-behavioral model of pain, the gate control theory of pain and the neuromatrix theory of pain. Gate control theory of pain The gate control theory suggests there is a neurological gate in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord (Melzack and Wall 1967). This gate either blocks pain signals or allows them to continue to the brain. This gate in the spinal cord differentiates between the types of fibers carrying pain signals. Pain signals travelling down the larger C nerve fibers are blocked whereas pain signals travelling done the smaller a-delta nerve fibers are allowed to pass through and therefore continue up to the brain where the pain can be perceived (cord (Melzack and Wall 1967). This gating mechanism is influenced by descending nerve impulses from the brain in response to ascending pain stimuli. Cognitive behavioral theory of pain The cognitive behavioural pain theory explores the perception of pain by relating it to more than just the physical and physiological attributes of the pain mechanism, and explores the predisposing and perpetuating factors as well as the psycho-social aspects involved in pain perception (Letham et al. 1983). This model explains why some individuals continue to experience pain after trauma has healed, or display a pain response disproportionate to the original condition. The theory states that the perception of pain is influenced by predisposing factors such as personality, coping style and previous history of illness, as well as perpetuating factors such as behaviour, emotions, and physical symptoms (Letham et al. 1983). This explains why some individuals suffer with continued pain after the original injury has resolved and are driven by fear of further pain leading to increasingly restricted activities despite the original injury being resolved, exhibit a maladaptive avoidance response. While other will experience very little pain in situations that would otherwise be excruciating, for example soldiers in battle (Letham et al. 1983) Neuromatrix theory of pain The pain neuromatrix theory is a development of the gate control theory of pain. A widespread distribution of neurons imprint a neurosignature upon nerve impulse patterns that pass through the sensory matrix (Melzack 2001). This neurosignature creates the experience of self and gives subsets of patterns that give unique experiences such as pain. The perception of pain in the brain would be as the end result of an activation of the pain neuromatrix with a characteristic pattern relating to the pain signature (Melzack 2001). This is part of a multi system response to a perceived threat. However there are many other inputs that can trigger the pain neuromatrix in the brain including movement, touch, fear and visual stimuli (Melzack 2001). This is due to the fact that the widespread neurons which make up the neuromatrix for pain perception are involved in many other activities so the pattern for pain perception can be triggered by other groups of neuromatirx being active during other activities not purely the pain neuromatrix Pain and pathways There are four basic processes involved in nociception(processing of pain), Transduction, transmission, perception and modulation (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999). Transduction begins when nociceptors (free nerve endings) of either the A-delta fibres or C fibres of the primary afferent neurones respond to noxious stimuli. A noxious stimulai occurs when tissue is damaged and inflation occurs. The nociceptors are found in the somatic structures (skin, muscles, and joints) as well as the visceral structures (organs such as gastro-intestinal tract or the liver). (Wood 2008) Although both the C fibre and A-delta fibres are Primary afferent fibres they have different cell structures and are associated with different pain qualities (table 1). Table 1: Characteristics and functions of C fibres and A-delta fibres (Farquhar-Smith 2007) C fibres A-delta fibres Characteristics: Small diameter Unmyelinated Slow conducting Receptor type: Polymodal: respond to more than one type of noxious stimuli: Mechanical Thermal Chemical Pain quality: Diffuse Dull Burning Aching Referred to as slow or second pain Characteristics: Large diameter Myelinated Fast conducting Receptor type: High-threshold mechanoreceptors: respond to mechanical stimuli over a certain intensity. Pain quality: Well-localised Sharp Stinging Pricking Referred to as fast or first pain There are three stages to the transmission of pain; first the impulse is transmitted from the site of transduction along the nociceptor fibres (first order neurons) to the dorsal horn, in the spinal cord, where both C fibre and A delta fibres terminate. In the dorsal horn they synapse with the second order neurons and which then cross the spinal cord via the anterior white commissure and ascend to the thalamus via the two main nociceptive ascending pathways. These are the spinoparabrachial pathway and the spinothalamic pathway. The thalamus then directs the nervous impulse to multiple areas of the cortex and higher brain for processing as there is not a discrete pain centre (Wood 2008). The end result of the pain transmission is the perception of pain. This is where pain becomes a conscious and multidimensional experience with affective-motivational, sensory-discriminative, emotional and behavioural components. When painful stimuli are transmitted to the brain stem and thalamus, three main cortical areas are activated, the reticular system, the somatosensory cortex, and the limbic system, each one is responsible for a different response to the pain stimuli. (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999) The reticular system is responsible for the autonomic and motor response to pain, for example, automatically withdrawing from a painful stimulus. It also plays a role in the affective-motivational response to pain, such as assessing an injury after pain has occurred. The somatosensory cortex is involved with the interpretation and perception of sensations. It identifies the location, type and intensity of the pain sensation and relates this sensation to past experiences before triggering a response. The limbic system is responsible for the behavioural and emotional response to pain as well as past experiences of pain. The modulation of pain involves altering or inhibiting the transmission of pain impulses in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The complex pathways involved in the modulation of pain are called the descending modulatory pain pathways (Ossipov et al. 2010). These pathways can lead to either an excitatory response (an increase in the transmission of pain impulses) or an inhibitory response (a decrease in transmission of pain impulses). Descending inhibition produces an analgesic effect by causing the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters which partially or completely block the transmission of pain impulses in the spinal cord (Ossipov et al. 2010). Endogenous pain modulation helps to explain the wide variations in the perception of pain in different people as individuals produce different amounts of inhibitory neurotransmitters. Endogenous opioids are found throughout the central nervous system (CNS) and prevent the release of some excitatory neurotransmitters, for example, substance P, therefore, inhibiting the transmission of pain impulses. Physiotherapy and treatment of Pain Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) papers on TENS and Pain (critical review of the literature) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is an electro therapy procedure the aim of which is pain relief. During treatment a low amplitude and frequency alternating electric current is passed between two electrodes placed on the body resulting in stimulation of the nervous system. Research will be reviewed examining the theory that TENS is an effective pain reliving modality. Previous studies by Chesterton et al (2002, 2003) Vance et al (2012) and Chen et al (2010) have all shown TENS to be an effective form of pain relief against blunt pressure pain with. All however have used different parameters for both the TENS settings and application sites. All of the previous studies looked at found TENS to be an effective method of pain relief based on pressure pain threshold measurement. Both of Chestertons and Vances studies found a statistically significant increase in pressure pain threshold after a twenty minute application of TENS (p=0.005, p=0.01, and p=0.002 respectively). Chen also found a significant difference in post TENS of p= Vance was the only study to look at other forms of pain measurement s outcome measures, as well as the use of a pressure pin threshold measure similar to the other studies a cutaneous mechanical pain threshold measure using Von Frey filaments and heat pain threshold measure were also used. Although using these additional outcome measures to assess the effectiveness of TEN as a pain reliving modality it was only the pressure pain threshold measure that yielded a significantly change. Therefore the results of the study can still only be extrapolated to the pressure pain reliving abilities of TENS and no other forms of pain. Both Vance and Chen explored the differences between the frequencies TENS applied. Chen uses 3Hz for low frequency and 80Hz for high frequency. Vance does not specify the actual frequency used and only states high and low frequency Tens was used with the definition of High frequency TENS >50Hz and Low frequency TENS In Chestertons 2002 also explored the differences between the frequencies of TENS applied using 4Hz as the low frequency and 110Hz as the high frequency. The results were similar to Chen with the high frequency TENS proving a more affective pain reliving modality of TENS. All three studies have good internal reliability, the same experimenter was used for every measurement, and standardised testing procedures were used. The rate of application of the algometer was kept constant when measuring the pressure pain threshold and the same point was used on each subject for the measurement. Chen and Vance, however, relied sole on the skill and consistence of the experimenter to ensure the pressure pin threshold reading was taken in the same manner for every subject. Chestertons studies used a special mounting frame for the algometer to ensure that it was perpendicular to the skin and that the rate of application was constant. This improved the internal reliability of the study as each subject will have had the reading taken in exactly the same way. Chesterton and Chen both use healthy volunteers as the subjects in their studies. Both studies have a good sample size with an equal distribution of males and females. Chen subjects have a small age range (mean  ± SD, age 26.7  ± 2.9 years) which is not representative of the population. Chestertons sample has a much larger are range (mean  ± SD, age 30 ± 7 years, range 18-57 years) which is a far closer representation of the general population and makes the extrapolation and application of the results more reliable. However both of these studies, due to only using healthy subjects, cannot be reliable extrapolated to apply to people who are not healthy. Therefore it cannot reliably be said that anyone suffering with a painful condition, be it degenerative, trauma, or surgical, will benefit from the application of high frequency TENS or that it will reduce their pain. It can only reliable be said that it will reduce the pain perceived in healthy individuals. This however is add ressed by Vance, although using smaller sample size than Chesterton all of the subjects used in the study all had a diagnosis of medial compartment osteoarthritis of the knee. Unlike the other studies Vance did not have an equal split of male to female subjects (29 male 46 female), however by using a stratified randomisation process it was ensure that each experimental group had the same ratio of male to female subjects. Therefore unlike the other studies Vances results can be reliably extrapolated to apply to a population with a diagnosis of medial compartment osteoarthritis of the knee, and high frequency TENS can be reliably used as a pain reliving modality. Random allocation of groups Not all subjects tens naive Blinding All have good baseline comparability between groups. Chen Good base line A paired t-test on this data found no significant differences (mean + SD = -1.50  ± 5.65N,  P  = .143) Chesterton 2002 Good basleine similar This was confirmed by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for pre-treatment mean MPT (P 0:19 Chesterton 2003 Good One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant differences in PPT, between the groups at baseline (p 0:142) Vance Bad not equal gender split 29 male 46 femle. But good that same ration in each group. Good There were no significant differences between groups in demographic characteristics, with the exception of body mass indexes (P.027). Algomiter reliability Aim(s) Hypothesis (hypotheses) Does High-TENS affect pressure pain threshold (PPT) at the periphery? Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in the pressure pain threshold between the control group and experimental group. Methods Design This study was an experimental repeated measures clinical trial. The independent variable being assessed was transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. The dependent variable was Pressure pain threshold. The study included 20 people who had no previous history of knee pain and had not previously experienced TENS. Subjects attended two sessions with a 48 hour interval. In the first session subjects were given a placebo TENS and in the second a single high frequency TENS treatment. Outcome measurements were obtained before and during each treatment. Ethical approval for the study was granted by the University Ethics Committee (Cardiff University, 2012). Participants A convenience sample of 20 subjects from Cardiff University School of Healthcare was used. The inclusion criteria consisted of being a healthy subject. Subjects were screened for relevant contraindications and exclusion criteria including: pacemakers, heart disease or arrhythmias, undiagnosed pain, epilepsy, peripheral neuropathy (Fox and Sharp, 2007), history of trauma or surgery to the dominant leg in the last 6 months, medication, history of pregnancy or knowledge or use of TENS treatment (Chesterton et al., 2002). No subjects were excluded. The experimental procedure was explained to each subject who then signed a consent form witnessed by an independent person (Appendix 4). At the first session, subjects were assessed for bilateral recognition of sharp versus dull pressure at the L3 dermatome to rule out loss of sensation. Ethics Ethical approval was obtained from The School of Healthcare Studies Ethics committee Cardiff University and a single blind experiment using repeated measures was used. A risk assessment was carried out for the pilot and data collection assess risk to the subjects and the investigator using the standard risk assessment method of the cardiff university Physiotherapy department. The risk is quantified by the Risk Rating Number which is calculated by multiplying the probable frequency by the potential severity. For this research the probable frequency is unlikley scoring two and the potential severity is negligible scoring one (appendix 1). The Risk Rating number is two which requires no further action (Cardiff Univeirsity 2012). Individuals with a history of knee pain were excluded, reducing the likelihood of physical injury to the subjects during the PPT measurement process. In the event of an injury subjects would be withdrawn from the study and appropriate medical advice would be sought. The privacy and dignity of the subjects during electrode placement was ensured by using screens, and gaining informed consent before exposing the skin on the back. The information sheet given to the subjects (Appendix 3) informed them of what the study involved, and that the results would be analysed as part of this research project. Subjects were informed they were free to withdraw from the study at any time. All data was confidential and anonymous. All data stored on a computer was and password protected and anonymous. Pilot study A pilot study was conducted on 3 subjects not included in the main study prior to data collection. This was to ensure that the method to be used was satisfactory and to allow researcher to familiarize themselves with the equipment. It also allowed the researcher to estimate the time required, allowing appropriate time slots to be set. Another reason for the pilot study to be carried out was to expose any unforeseen errors or limitations in the design protocol allowing modification as necessary (Jenkins et al, 1998). The pilot study highlighted variations in subject foot placement in sitting, in turn effecting the knee positioning needed for a PPT reading to be taken. It was therefore decided to give subjects the following verbal command on how to sit, sit with your feet flat on the floor and your knees at ninety degrees, to minimize variance in knee position. The rest of the method was deemed sufficient and no further changes were made. Apparatus The pressure pain threshold was assessed using a handheld pressure algometer (Algometer commander, Jtech medical, United States) with a flat circular metal tip measuring 1.1 cm in diameter. The force was displayed digital in increments of 0.1N and applied at a rate of at 5N/s (Chesterton et al 2002). The subjects were instructed to say stop when the sensation first became painful. A practice test was first performed on the non-dominant knee to familiarize subjects with the procedure. The use of a pressure algometer for measuring pressure pain threshold has excellent test-retest reliability (r.70-94) (Fischer, 1987), and is a valid measure for deep-tissue hyperalgesia as discussed by Staud et al. (2007) Electrical stimulation was generated via a commercially available a dual channel, TENS unit (200 plus, TPN), the unit uses an asymmetrical, biphasic waveform. The pulse width was set at 50 microseconds and the frequency 150Hz, and the intensity was increased to the subjects verbal report of when the feeling became strong but still comfortable. Procedure. Before taking part in the study, all subjects were given an information sheet (appendix 3) explaining research study and what would be expected from them if they participate and completed a consent form (Appendix 4). Subjects came in on two separate occasions 48 hours apart; once for the control trial (sham TENS) and once for the application of TENS. In the first session demographic data was obtained, which included age and gender. A standard sharp/blunt discrimination test was performed, using neurotip at each stimulation site, to ensure intact skin sensation. The skin was then cleaned using an alcohol wipe before the application of electrodes (Chesterton et al., 2003). Two TENS electrodes were then placed over the L3 spinal level. Each electrode was placed over the L3 Spinal nerve root the location of which was found by palpating to the L3 spinal level (Rhoades et al. 2009). The first electrode was positioned 10mm to the left of the L3 spinal process with the second positioned 10mm to the right. The center of each the electrode was placed level with the inferior aspect of the L3 spinal process (figure 1). Experimenter 1 was responible soley for the electrode psoiting nd TENS application to ensure internal reliability. Figure 1 Subjects were seated in a comfortable upright position with feet flat on the floor. The position of the pressure pain reading was then marked bilaterally. This was done by measuring 30mm superior to the central aspect of the superior border of the patella in flexion (figure 2). Experimenter 2 was responsible solely for the positioning of the pressure pain reading and the algometer application to ensure internal reliability. Figure 2 A practice pressure pain measurement was then performed on the subjects non dominant side with subjects instructed to say stop when the sensation first became painful. At this point the experimenter immediately retracted the algometer. (Chesterton et al. 2003) This process was then repeat three times at 30 second intervals on the dominant side to establish a base line figure (Vance et al 2012). The Tens machine was then turned on and the intensity increased to the subjects verbal report of when the feeling became strong but still comfortable. For the sham TENS subjects were told that some forms of TENS were imperceptible and, they might not feel any sensation. The battery in the TENS unit was inserted the wrong way round. The unit was still visibly switched on and the intensity turned up, but no current was flowing (Chesterton et al 2003). A 30 minute timer was started as soon as the intensity was correctly adjusted. When the 30 minute time period had elapsed three further pressure pain threshold readings were taken again at 30 second intervals on the dominant side to a post treatment figure. Once these reading were taken the TENS machine was turned off and the electrodes removed. Subjects were monitored for a further 30 min after the end of the stimulation period (Chesterton et al 2002). Subjects returned for the second session 48 hours later. Data Analysis All data was entered into Windows Excel version 2010 Descriptive analysis was carried out using means, standard deviations this was presented as tables and graphs. The data was then entered into SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20.0). The data was interval ratio and the study investigated one group of subjects. A paired t-test was conducted to compare the percentage change in pressure pain threshold between the control and high TENS conditions. A statistical significance level of 95% (p Results The demographic data can be seen in Table 1. The following tables and graphs present both descriptive and statistical analysis of the pressure pain threshold data. All SPSS outputs can be seen in appendix 5 and raw algometer data can be seen in Appendix 6. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Sample N minimum maximum mean S.D Age 20 19 23 19.95 1.09904 Key: N = Number of subjects S.D = Standard Deviation A small standard deviation is seen for the age of subjects in Table 1. The male to female ratio was 1:1 with 10 female subjects and 10 male subjects. All subjects met the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and all were able to complete the study. Discussion There are two primary and related theories for explaining the efficacy of TENS in chronic or acute pain relief. The gate theory (Wall, 1965 (Melzack R, Wall P. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science. 150(699):971-979,1965)) proposes that pain transmission relies on a gate to the thalamus and cortex for nocireceptive information to be interpreted as pain. This theory postulates that inhibition of nocireceptors can be caused by rapid impulse activation of myelinated nerve fibers. The second related theory postulates that neurotransmitter exhaustion can be caused by rapid nerve activation outside of its refractory period, and that the temporary exhaustion of neurotransmitters would provide pain relief until such time as neurotransmitter synthesis had refilled the synaptic junctions (Kaye, 2007(Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation: WebMD eMedicine. http://www.emedicine.com/pmr/topic206.htm January 26, 2007)). Limitations Clinical Implications Further research Conclusion

Cognitive Psych Review :: essays research papers

THE BASICS 1. The role of computation in cognition 2. Marr's levels (barn owl experiment) 1. Computational theory: What is the goal of the computation, why is it appropriate, and what is the logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out? 2. Representation and algorithm: How can this computational theory be implemented? In particular, what is the representation for the input and output, and what is the algorithm for the transformation? 3. Hardware implementation: How can the representation and algorithm be realized physically? 3. The brain as a multidimensional space 4. Awareness and consciousness (Chapter 2) PERCEPTION 5. Generalization (Shepard’s Law states that the further away in psych. Space, the less of a chance of generalization). 6. Categorization categorization: recognize objects as belonging to the same category, without losing information about their differences. categorical perception as distortion of the representation space sigmoidal curve 7. Statistical nature of cognition (Mathematical averages of beauty) 8. Adaptation (page 77) adaptation compensates for the statistical regularities of the world; MEMORY 9. Cognitive maps 10. STM and LTM 11. Meta-memory 12. Schemata LANGUAGE 13. Speech 14. Sentence processing (p. 301-303) 15. Semantic holism Instead, they have meanings only when they hang out with other sentences. Statements about the external world face the tribunal of experience not individually but only as a corporate body." 16. Acquisition the transitional probability from one sound to next will be highest when the two sounds follow one another within a word, whereas transitional probabilities spanning a word boundary will be relatively low. THINKING 17. The frame problem This presented the "frame problem": how to design a system that could, unlike poor C3, infer the persistence of nonchanges, but that could do so automatically — that is, without explicitly storing or accessing frame axioms for them. 18. Modes of reasoning deduction, induction, abduction Inductive reasoning performance will be better when the subjects are asked to judge a frequency instead of the probability of a single event. 19. Impediments to reason (conjunction fallacies [bank teller problem], overconfidence) intuition pumps, 20. Creativity (preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, elaboration). Preparation - It is almost impossible to have a good new idea without having first been immersed in a particular symbolic system or domain. Creative inventors know the ins and outs of their branch of technology, artists are familiar with the work of previous artists, scientists have learned whatever there is to know about their specialty. One must also feel a certain unease about the state of the art in one's domain.

Introduction To Hard Times :: essays research papers

The shortest of Dickens' novels, Hard Times, was also, until quite recently, the least regarded of them. The comedy is savagely and scornfully sardonic, to the virtual exclusion of the humour - that delighted apprehension of and rejoicing in idiosyncrasy and absurdity for their own sakes, which often cuts right across moral considerations and which we normally take for granted in Dickens. Then, too, the novel is curiously skeletal. There are four separate plots, or at least four separate centres of interest: the re-education through suffering of Mr. Gradgrind, the exposure of Bounderby, the life and death of Stephen Blackpool, and the story of Sissy Jupe. There are present, in other words, all the potentialities of an expansive, discursive novel in the full Dickens manner. But they are not and could not be realised because of the limitation of length Dickens imposed upon himself. The novel was written as a weekly serial story to run through five months of his magazine, Household Words, during 1854. Dickens had to force his story to fit the exigencies of a Procrustean bed and, in doing so, sacrificed the abundance of life characteristic of his genius. That, at any rate, was the general view of Hard Times until in 1948 F.R. Leavis, in his book The Great Tradition, suggested that it was a "moral fable," the hallmark of a moral fable being that "the intention is peculiarly insistent, so that the representative significance of everything in the fable - character, episode, and so on - is immediately apparent as we read." By seeing it as a moral fable, Dr. Leavis produced a brilliant rereading of Hard Times that has changed almost every critic's approach to the novel. Yet a difficulty still remains: the nature of the target of Dickens' satire. Both Gradgrind and Bounderby are emblematic, to the point of caricature, of representative early-nineteenth-century attitudes. Dickens tells us that Gradgrind has "an unbending, utilitarian, matter-of-fact face"; and the novel has been taken as an attack on the philosophical doctrine known as utilitarianism, the doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principle of conduct. But utilitarianism can also mean the doctrine that utility must be the standard of what is good for man. Perhaps the two meanings come together in the famous Victorian phrase, "enlightened self-interest," the meaning of which will turn entirely upon the definition of "enlightened." Utilitarianism in the philosophical sense , as taught by the noble-minded John Stuart Mill, has had a profound and abiding influence on Western life and thought, and Dickens was certainly not competent to criticise it as a philosophical system.

An Obese South Africa

AN OBESE SOUTH AFRICA South Africa records the highest rates of obesity in Africa with statistics that dsindicate that 29% of men and 56% of women are either obese or overweight, according to the World Health Organisation (Morris, 2011). The increase in prevalence of obesity has seen it become a primary risk factor for sedentary lifestyle related diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. Obesity as a health issue in South Africa will be discussed. Rates of obesity in South Africa have progressively increased.Obesity has been defined as the presence of excess body weight in an individual (Brannon & Feist, 2006). In terms of the biomedical view on obesity, obesity is measured in terms of Body Mass Index (BMI). The BMI has been found to be useful in identifying excess body weight as it tracks the percentage of body fat and gives a an estimate of the health risk as a result of any excess weight (Morris, 2011). BMI values > 30kg/ m? are considered or recognised as obesity (Morris, 2011 ).Obesity is characterised by alterations in metabolic functions that result from an increase in total body fat mass as well as the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). The metabolic alterations are strongly associated with the development of comorbid diseases such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity has been associated with certain forms of chronic diseases namely sleep apnoea, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes (type 2) (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). These are the most common diseases associated with obesity.In terms of the South African context, impacting contributing factors for obesity include low exercise levels, consuming unhealthy fatty foods and high dietary energy (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). These risk factors are relevant mainly to people who live in urban areas, however, these are by no means the only factors that impact on obesity levels. Low weight at birth has be en linked to obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). In South Africa there is a view that malnourished children and therefore stunted, are more prone to gain a lot of weight when fed empty alories (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Therefore this contributes to alarming obesity rates in South Africa. This is a predominant case in South Africa due to high rates of poverty, unemployment and low socioeconomic status (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Coupled with this predisposition, unhealthy (junk) food is made cheaper and thus more readily available to the masses for consumption. It is estimated that 19% of children are stunted from malnutrition due to many people living below the breadline (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009).Obesity is also connected with genetics and has been found to be inheritable (Brannon & Feist, 2006; van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). As far as psychosocial views are concerned, different ethnic groups in South Africa have been shown to perceive obesity differently. In a st udy conducted by Morris (2011), few African women subjects (16%) viewed themselves as obese yet the BMI results indicated that 59% actually were overweight and obese. In the same study, 54% of white women perceived themselves to be overweight yet 49% of the sample was actually overweight.South African men and women have inaccurate perceptions of their body weight (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). 9. 7% of men and 22. 1% of women perceive themselves as overweight, while 29. 2% of men and 56. 6% of women actually are overweight. Only 16% of black South African women perceived themselves as overweight compared to 31% of Indian women, and 54% of white women (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). It would appear from the outset that there is disparity about obesity amongst white and African people.In terms of racial groups in South Africa, of women, black women showed the highest rates of obesity and for men white men showed higher rates of obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). A misperception of ‘healthy or benign obesity’ exists amongst the black ethnic African racial group in South Africa (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity is assumed to not have any consequence on health yet results show that of black patients in clinics with type 2 diabetes, obesity is prevalent in 35-47% of women and 15. 5% in men.Although heart disease is seen as an uncommon disorder for black people, results or statistics show that more black people die of heart disease than do whites (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity is considered to be a doubtful atherogenic factor within the black ethnic group. The high prevalence rate of obesity in Black women is perpetuated by many misperceptions about obesity as a health risk. The notion that increased body mass or weight is seen as a token of wealth, wellbeing, happiness and an indication that their husband is able to care for his wife and family (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).Overweight children are also seen as a positive state of h ealth and sustenance (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Obesity has also been found to be prevalent amongst HIV patients from Soweto as obesity helps to lower the risk of contraction tuberculosis (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Obesity has been recognised as a chronic disease by the World Health Organisation thus it needs to be treated (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). In terms of culture, obesity is highly prevalent and ‘normalised’ in the black ethnic group most notably to black women (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).As the black ethnic group represent a major set of the South African population, the myth of a healthy obesity and the biomedical facts need to be relayed to them in order to prevent obesity levels and the various other diseased that are associated with the obesity (diabetes and heart disease). The media has been cited as the main source for nutritional information to Black South African women, health professionals need to act and use the media as a tool to reac h out to counter misperceptions and to provide accurate health information about obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).In conclusion, it can be seen that obesity is a health issue in South Africa. The prevalence rate can be reduced provided culturally accepted false perceptions of obesity and nutrition are changed based on reporting and spreading of accurate biomedical information to the many people that deem obesity as either healthy or without any adverse health consequences. References Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2006) An Introduction to Behaviour and Health.Cengage Learning. Du Toit, D. D. , & Van der Walt, J. L. (2009). Childhood overweight and obesity patterns in South Africa: a review: health. African Journal For Physical, Health Education, Recreation And Dance,  15(1), 15-31. Morris, A. G. (2011). Fatter and fatter: South Africa's rise in body mass index. South African Journal Of Science,  107(3/4), 12. van der Merwe, M. , & Pepper, M. (2006). Obesity in South Africa. Obes ity Reviews,  7(4), 315-322. [pic]