Zero Tolerance Policy Go to Far essays

Zero Tolerance Policy Go to Far essays DOES THE ZERO TOLERANCE POLICY GO TO FAR? Does the Zero Tolerance Policy go to far? According to Websters Dictionary, the definition of zero is naught: none; the defintion of tolerance is patience. The meaning of Zero Tolerance infact means both. Zero Tolerance in the school system means that teachers, administrators and school officials are to have no leniency towards any wrong behavior and must take drastic action to stop it immediately. A public shaken with images of children killing children in school hallways may be applauding a new emphasis on stricter punishment of students who even hint at violent behavior, but when zero tolerance becomes zero options, it has gone way to far. The tendency to go to far is a predictable reaction from school officials tring to cope with a chain of recent school shootings. I believe that the schools now take everything a child does since the shootings, way to seriously. THese zero tolerance policies tend to be so inflexible that it tends to be an overreaction. THere is no room for discretion for one child and not the next, one punishment for all even if that is the differance between an innocent child playing a game and a violent child with a real problem and an intent to cause harm to others. A 6 yr old boy in Colorado Springs, COlorado learned the hard way about zero tolerance. The year was 1997 and police and ambulance were called to the elementary school because the first grader gave a lemon drop to another student and a teacher thought it was a drug since she didn't recognize it. The boy was suspended for half a day because it was considered a drug since it was only sold in health food stores. The action taken was drastic for kids sharing candy, isn't it what our mom's tell us to do and the poor kids was suspended for it. Three children were caught playing withwater guns and the result was that these three boys faced expulsion hear...

Biography of Architect Richard Rogers, Designer of 3 WTC

Biography of Architect Richard Rogers, Designer of 3 WTC British architect Richard Rogers (born July 23, 1933) has designed some of the most important buildings of the modern era. Beginning with the Parisian Centre Pompidou, his building designs have been characterized as being inside out, with facades that look more like working mechanical rooms. In 2007 he received architectures highest honor and became a Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureate. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II, becoming Lord Rogers of Riverside, but in the U.S. Rogers is best known for rebuilding Lower Manhattan after 9/11/01. His 3 World Trade Center was one of the last towers to be realized. Fast Facts: Richard Rogers Occupation: British ArchitectBorn: July 23, 1933 in Florence, ItalyEducation: Yale UniversityKey Accomplishments: Centre Pompidou with Renzo Piano; Three World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan; 2007 Pritzker Architecture Prize Early Life Born in Florence, Italy to an English father and Italian mother, Richard Rogers was raised and educated in Britain. His father studied medicine and hoped that Richard would pursue a career in dentistry. Richards mother was interested in modern design and encouraged her sons interest in the visual arts. A cousin, Ernesto Rogers, was one of Italys prominent architects. In his Prizker acceptance speech, Rogers noted that it was Florence where my parents instilled in my brother Peter and me a love of beauty, a sense of order, and the importance of civic responsibility. As war broke out in Europe, the Rogers family moved back to England in 1938 where young Richard attended public schools. He was dyslexic and did not do well. Rogers had a run-in with the law, entered the National Service, became inspired by the work of his relative, Ernesto Rogers, and ultimately decided to enter Londons Architectural Association school. Later he moved to the U.S. to pursue a masters degree in architecture at Yale University on a Fulbright Scholarship. There he developed relationships that would last a lifetime. Partnerships After Yale, Rogers worked for Skidmore, Owings Merrill (SOM) in the U.S. When he finally returned to England, he formed Team 4 architectural practice with Norman Foster, Fosters wife Wendy Cheeseman, and Rogers wife Su Brumwell. By 1967, the couples had split to form their own firms. In 1971 Rogers entered a partnership with the Italian architect Renzo Piano. Although the partnership dissolved in 1978, both architects became world famous with their work in Paris France - the Centre Pompidou, completed in 1977. Rogers and Piano had invented a new type of architecture, where the mechanics of a building were not simply transparent but showcased as part of the facade. It was a different kind of postmodern architecture that many began to call high-tech and inside-out architecture. Exterior of Centre Pompidou. Richard T. Nowitz/Getty Images Rogers chose good partners, although it was Renzo Piano and not Rogers who in 1998 would win the first Pritzker Prize and then Norman Foster won in 1999. Rogers won in 2007, and the Pritzker Jury was still talking about Pompidou, saying it revolutionized museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, woven into the heart of the city. After Pompidou, the team split and the Richard Rogers Partnership was established 1978, which eventually became Rogers Stirk Harbour Partners in 2007. Personal Life Rogers married Susan (Su) Brumwell before they both went off to study at Yale University - he studied architecture and she studied town planning. She was the daughter of Marcus Brumwell who headed the Design Research Unit (DRU), a moving force in British design. The couple had three children and divorced in the 1970s, during the work on Centre Pompidou. Shortly after, Rogers married the former Ruth Elias of Woodstock, New York and Providence, Rhode Island. Called Ruthie, Lady Rogers is a well-known chef in Britain. The couple had two children. All of Richard Rogers children are sons. Famous Quote Architecture is too complex to be solved by any one person. Collaboration lies at the heart of all my work. Legacy Like all great architects, Richard Rogers is a collaborator. He partners not only with people but also with new technologies, the environment, and the societies in which we all live. He was an eary champion of energy efficiency and sustainability in a profession that came late to taking responsibility in protecting the environment. His fascination with technology is not merely for artistic effect, cites the Pritzker Jury, but more importantly, it is a clear echo of a buildings program and a means to make architecture more productive for those it serves. Inside Lloyds of London. Sean Batten/Getty Images (cropped) After the success of the Centre Pompidou in the 1970s, Rogers next huge project was the Lloyds of London building completed in 1986. The Pritzker Jury cited it as another landmark of late twentieth century design and that it established Richard Rogers’ reputation as a master not only of the large urban building, but also of his own brand of architectural expressionism. In the 1990s Rogers tried his hand at tensile architecture and created Londons temporary Millennium Dome, which is still being used as the O2 arena center of entertainment in Southeast London. The Rogers Partnership has designed buildings and cities all over the world - from Japan to Spain, Shanghai to Berlin, and Sydney to New York. In the U.S. he was part of the redevelopment of Lower Manhattan after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 - Tower 3 at 175 Greenwich Street is a Rogers design, completed in 2018. Rogers legacy is as the responsible architect, the professional who considers the workplace, the building site, and the world we share. He was the first architect to deliver the prestigious Reitch Lecture in 1995. In Sustainable City: Cities for a Small Planet he lectured the world: Other societies have faced extinction - some, like the Easter Islanders of the Pacific, the Harappa civilization of the Indus Valley, the Teotihuacan in pre-Columbian America, due to ecological disasters of their own making. Historically, societies unable to solve their environmental crises have either migrated or become extinct. The vital difference today is that the scale of our crisis is no longer regional but global: it involves all of humanity and the entire planet. The Leadenhall Building, London, UK. Oli Scarff/Getty Images

Continuity in film making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Continuity in film making - Essay Example Continuity is a task for all the production team as it has to be maintained at all levels of the production team. From the script supervisor, film director to the most important touch in postproduction - the editor, continuity is important. By identifying the connections that form continuity among the production team members, it can minimize the number of errors that usually occur in the production of a film. There are too many production team members to describe each and every connection in detail. In this thesis, the focus is on the director and the editor. This will allow us to go through the preproduction process, the postproduction process, and most importantly the understanding and the ability to identify the responsibilities, of each team member at each stage of production. Although not including many of the individual pieces, to get a better understanding of the basic cinematographic process I have included a basic description of the overall process. Visuals are pictures and sequences of motion pictures is a film, which captures the motion or action, so the camera by recording these events, does its job. The person who controls the camera is the cameraman. This person is in charge of moving the camera in predetermined directions which can serve the purpose of achieving the best shot is taken. The director provides the direction, how the camera moves or what should be shown in the frame gate, based on their interpretation of the script of the story, provided by the script writer. After completing the shots and sequences, the editor gathers the footage and compiles them in a way that they match and gives the feel for the entire footage. The editor is also responsible for matching the sequences shot, which gives the illusion of continuity. Justification of the Research To create a motion picture, regardless of expertise of the crew, there is a requirement to achieve continuity. Continuity requires more attention and especially during a large film productio n as it requires script, budget, and equipment. All of these processes have to be combined together to make a film. It is a complex process and can involve a large number of people to work together in a film project. One fact is that, no matter how easy it is to see the movie or a motion picture, it is a much more complicated process especially when it gets to the structure of making it. Historically films have been made by three main countries; Great Britain, France, and the United States. It hasn’t been until the last couple of decades that other countries such as India have joined in the cinema field with successes. Not only have other countries joined in the film making business, but so have amateur filmmakers with low budgets and fresh ideas. The growth of the motion picture making around the world is expanding and most of the developers are young which means the future of filmmaking is bright. The growth of video making is exponential, especially with the advent of Yout ube.com and the fact that at any time in 2012 most people have at least one camera at their house. Many of those individuals would like to tell a story, so to tell a story visually the fact of continuity has to be present. As the visual creation needs to be in the right composition angle and camera movement, all of data collected has to gather to tell a cohesive story. Methodology and Case Study A focused theoretical

Tracking, is it viable Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tracking, is it viable - Research Paper Example On the other hand, the students in the lesser tracks get equipped with skills on welding, bookkeeping, and beauty therapy. Essentially, this paper will illustrate whether the tracking system of learning is viable or not by giving substantial reasons (Powell, 2000). In addition, it will argue out whether this system should apply in the elementary stages of one’s carrier path by including heterogeneous and homogeneous cooperative learning styles. As a necessity, it will seek to bring out the summative and formative classroom assessment by using flip classrooms or homeschooling as examples. Finally, the paper will advise on what the best alternative forms of instructions and guidelines would work well at the elementary level when applying tracking system. Tracking system has proved to be the acceptable and most viable learning system over the years. Various attributes contribute towards making it reliable. For one, this system has been effective in meeting the needs of gifted pup ils within a regular classroom. The main advantage is that it provides the opportunity for the students to associate with their intellectual peers. According to Powell, (2000), this interaction mainly influenced their emotional, social, and intellectual well-being. On the other hand, tracking allowed students to feel lesser isolation and reduced stress levels because of their grouping with students with the same level of abilities. In addition, Epple et al (2000) found that working in a cluster was better than working alone as the group challenged individuals to give quality outputs. On the other hand, the average students have also been beneficiaries of this system through one way or another. For instance, clustering of these students is effective in identifying new leaders when the high performing students move to the high ability classrooms (Gentry 1996). However, high performing students shared a classroom with the middle cluster to widen their educational opportunities in their strong areas.

The issues surrounding euthanasia Essay Example for Free

The issues surrounding euthanasia Essay ‘The concept of the Sanctity of Life is not helpful in understanding the issues surrounding euthanasia.’ Discuss. (10 marks) Some may agree with the statement because the Sanctity of Life does not allow people to make autonomous decisions when it comes to euthanasia. Voluntary euthanasia should be an option for a competent adult who is able and willing to make such a decision. The VES argues that every human being deserves respect and has the right to choose their own destiny, including how they live and die. However, the Sanctity of Life is too rigid as it does not make any exceptions. Furthermore, some may agree with this statement because the Sanctity of Life does not hold one’s quality life as important. For example, Diane Pretty used to lead a full and active life but then suffered from an incurable disease that limited her ability to move and communicate with others like she used. Her quality of life was clearly no longer desirable, and that is why she wanted her husband to end her life so that she could die in a dignified manner. However, the Sanctity of Life overlooks the quality of life, as all life is God given and is thus sacred; therefore it does not truly address the issues surrounding euthanasia. On the other hand, both Natural Law and the Sanctity of Life are against euthanasia because of the teachings in Bible, such as in Exodus 20 – ‘thou shalt not kill’. The primary precept to preserve innocent life is based upon this. Therefore, it is clear that euthanasia is wrong irrespective of the issues that surround it, there are no exceptions. In addition, in Job 1:21 it states that ‘the Lord can gave, and the Lord has taken away’, and this means that only God has the divine authority to take life away, and so euthanasia should not be carried out, it is intrinsically wrong. To conclude, it seems that most would agree with the statement because the Sanctity of Life leaves little room for compassion in comparison to a relative theory of ethics such as Situation ethics, which would aim to do the most loving thing in every situation – so would look at one’s quality of life for example, and other issues surrounding euthanasia. Ultimately, the concept of the Sanctity of Life is not the most helpful in understanding the various issues surrounding euthanasia.

The Truth Will Set You Free Essay -- Literary Analysis

Many writers apply experiences and thoughts into their work and express them in such a way the reader can relate. Critics would agree Edgar Allan Poe left a unique mark as a short story writer. Author Ray Bradbury was quoted saying, â€Å"It doesn't matter what you do, so long as you change something from the way it was before you touched it into something that's like you after you take your hands away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Bradbury). Fiction writing was simple until Poe begins to put his twist around the world. During the terrible times that Edgar Allan Poe experienced as a young man would ultimately alter the history of short stories, he was unique and an extraordinary writer therefore exemplifying the mark that he leave upon society in his short stories Hop-frog. In Poe’s early life, he goes through a devastating and tragic event as his mother dies and his biological father abandons him at the age of two leaving him as an orphan. Writer W.D. Johnson says, â€Å"Increased susceptibility to depression and anxiety is another result of the heightened stress levels associated with being an orphan. Typically, the younger the age of a child when orphaned and the longer he remains without a home, the more drastic the impact that his experiences as an orphan will have on his development† (Johnson). Poe’s adolescence seemed to be on a path destined for self-destruction following the Allan’s informal adoption of him at the age of two. Francis and John Allan, his foster parents, forced him to move away from his siblings in Boston to their home in Richmond, Virginia. From a young age, Poe lacked the stability of a fruitful environment for a boy to grow and mature into a man acceptable to society’s standards. Poe and his foster family moved to England in pursuit of... ... Mark. "Edgar Allan Poe." Edgar Allan Poe. Web. 07 May 2012. . "Edgar Allan Poe." Goodreads. Web. 07 May 2012. . Farlex. "Tuberculosis." The Free Dictionary. Farlex. Web. 07 May 2012. . "Poe's Life." Edgar Allan Poe Museum : Poe's Life, Legacy, and Works : Richmond, Virginia. Poe Museum, 1922. Web. 07 May 2012. . Soon, Willie and Steven Yaskell. "Year Without a Summer." Year Without a Summer. World Scientific Publishing Company, July 2001. Web. 07 May 2012. ."Year Without a Summer." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 June 2012. Web. 07 May 2012. .

Self-Assessment Final Reflection

Is one always in the process of learning? Of course! Every experience a person has makes them grow and develop. Through these experiences, they learn new materials, and at the same time, they learn about themselves as well. Learning to write is equally alike. As a person reads and writes more and more, a person is able to grow and develop their reading and writing skills. This summer was a growing experience for all students taking the writing 100 class. Personally, I believe I have grown as a writer.At the beginning of the bridge program, my CSP class was asked to write a paper. The topic was about why we decided to choose U of M as our college of choice. Writing the paper was a breeze and I felt confident that I would get a good grade. Unfortunately, when I was handed back my paper, I realized I earned a B on the paper. However, during the period of time where my professor was checking our papers, my Writing 100 class read David Bartholame’s article, Inventing the University .The first time I read this article, I did not understand what he was talking about and what his central theme way. However, after reading the article numerous times, breaking it down, outlining it, diagraming it, and writing about it several times, I was able to understand what he wanted the readers to know; a light bulb went off in my head. I saw the mistakes I made when writing my first paper for my CSP class. My essay demonstrated my lack of knowledge of the many various activities, and events held by the university.I was stuck in my common place, talking about only what I knew instead of seeking out information in order to expand my writing capabilities. I did not look on the internet to learn of any other information I could have used in the essay. Instead, I only wrote about what I knew. I also realized that organization was a key when writing an essay.   The largest critique I had on my essay was my organizational skills. My professor took off several points for jumping f rom topic to topic.Although my organizational skills were terrible when writing that essay, I believe I have gotten much better. This is due in part to Mrs. Allen. Throughout the writing course, she constantly encouraged us to think about our organization when writing essays, journal responses, and other writing activities. I’m grateful I learned how to better organize my papers, because during the second to last week of the intensive bridge program, I was asked to write a last journal for my CSP class. This time, we interviewed our parents and were asked to write about our experiences while nterviewing them. While writing this paper, I paid close attention to my organization. I made everything flow into each other. I also made sure that my paper went in chronological order so that it was easier to read and follow. My professor took about a week to grade my paper. During this time, I was able to ponder upon my essay. I knew what my professor was looking for, and I wrote for h im. I knew that I had done my best on the essay; my organization was solid and I had a nice flow. I finally received my essay back on August 10th, receiving a 25/25.I was ecstatic when I had received my grade. This is all thanks to my Writing 100 class and the hard work that I put into the class. I’m grateful I had the opportunity to take this class and learn to develop my organizational skills. Through taking this class, my writing skills increased immensely. When I wrote my first CSP essay, I had no idea that my organization was skewed and that I could improve. In my eyes, I thought that I did not need any help and that my writing was â€Å"perfect†, or at least, close to.However, I was able to learn that I needed to improve my organization in order to succeed as a college writer. Without this course, it would have been difficult for me to adapt to the college level writing required for an English class. The assignments we were required to read and write about taugh t me about my writing; I could see where I needed improvement. My experience demonstrates that with constant reading and writing, a person is able to continue learning more about their own writing in order to improve. There is always room for improvement.

Biol 130 First Midterm Notes

Unit 1 – Introduction to the Cell Robert Hooke – built the first microscope (30x magnification); viewed slices of cork called cellula (little rooms). Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek – worked with glass huge improvement in quality of lenses nearly 300x magnification became possible first to observe: * single-celled organisms â€Å"animalcules† * protists from pond water * bacteria from his mouth – â€Å"father of microbiology† * blood cells * banded pattern in muscle cells * sperm from †¦ 1830s – Compound microscope – improved magnification and resolution and allowed visualization of objects less than 1 ? . 1000-1500x magnification Beginning of Cell Theory Robert Brown (botanist) – noticed that every plant cell contained a round structure called it ‘kernel’-nucleus Matthias Schleiden (another botanist) – all plant tissues are composed of cells; embryonic plant always arose from a single cell Theodor Schwann (zoologist) – similar observations in animal cells; recognition of structural similarities btw plants and animals! * Cell Theory formulated by Schwann Cell Theory 1. all organisms consist of one or more cells 2. he cell is the basic unit of structure for all organisms 3. added 20 years later: all cells arise only from pre-existing cells fact (scientific) – an attempt to state our best current understanding, based on observations and experiments(valid only until revised or replaced) Steps in Scientific Method 1. make observations 2. use inductive reasoning to develop tentative explanation (hypothesis) 3. make predictions based on your hypothesis 4. make further observations or design and carry out controlled experiments to test your hypothesis 5. nterpret your results to see if they support your hypothesis Theory – a hypothesis that has been tested critically under many different conditions andby many different investigators . using a variety of different approa ches. By the time an explanation is regarded as a theory it is widely accepted by most scientists in the cell * the â€Å"solid ground† of science: evolution, germ theory, cell theory *If a theory is thoroughly tested and confirmed over many years by such large numbers of investigators that there is no doubt of its validity †¦ it may eventually be regarded as a law.Gravity, laws of thermodynamics, laws that govern behaviour of gases ‘Strands’ of Cell Biology 13 cytology 1600s Hooke looks at cork Leeuwenhoek looks at lots of things 1800s Brown notes nuclei bio-chemistry synthesis of urea in lab fermentation done by cells! glycolysis Krebs cycle every cell comes from a cell Schleiden & Schwann formulate cell theory electron microscopy stains & dyes genetics Mendel, pea plants DNA chromosomes chromosome theory 1930s DNA double helix DNA sequencing Dolly the sheep! nano-technology! genetic code Light Microscopy:Bright field – light passes through specimen , contrast is slow and specimen is hard to see Phase contrast – contrast is changed by changing light in microscope DIC – uses optical modifications to change contrast between cell and background – due to density differential Staining – stain used to visualize cell and components, only some stains can be used on living cells 14 bright field phase contrast DIC unstained (sperm cells) stained blood cells tissue – small intestine Fluorescent Microscopy – fluorescent dyes bind to protein or DNA to see where they are in cells – tracks movement Electron Microscopy(Scanning & Transmission):SEM – scan surface of specimen to form image by detecting electrons from outer surface. Good surface images TEM – forms image from electrons passing through specimen therefore fine details of internal organelles 16 SEM TEM Basic Properties of Cells: * are highly complex and organized * atoms molecules macromolecules (organelles ) enclosed in plasma membrane * use the same ‘genetic program’ Central Dogma * DNA RNA protein * are capable of reproducing themselves * must first replicate genetic material acquire and use energy (â€Å"bioenergetics†) and carry out a variety of chemical reactions (â€Å"cellular metabolism†) * have many processes that are highly conserved at the molecular level * membrane structure, genetic code, ATP synthesizing enzymes, actin filaments, eukaryotic flagella, †¦ * engage in many mechanical activities * transport of materials in/out, within * assembly and disassembly of structures * motility / movement * respond to environmental signals * move away or toward stimuli * respond to hormones, growth factors, etc * are capable of self-regulationâ€Å"homeostasis† most evident when control systems break down; defects in DNA replication, DNA repair, cell cycle control Two Classes of Cells – karyon = nucleus Prokaryotic Cells: lack of nucleus, NO CYTOSKELET ON(very small), membrane bound organelles. Mostly unicellular. Bacteria and Archaea. Single, circular strand of DNA(fewer proteins). Cell wall in addition to PM 1-10 uM in diameter. 2 types: 1. Eubacteria – all have cells walls except for mycoplasma(resistant to antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis). Mycoplasma(smallest) Cyanobacteria (largest and most complex). 2.Archaeabacteria – all have cell walls and are known as extermophiles, occupy broad range of habitats, halophiles=salty, acidophiles=acid, thermophiles= hot. Eukaryotic Cells: 10x larger than prokaryotic cells, membrane bound nucleus/organelles. More complex DNA due to histones/proteins. 4 groups: 1. Protists- very diverse group – mostly single cells; algae, water molds, slime molds, protozoa 2. Fungi – single cell(yeast) or multi-cellular(mushrooms) and have cell walls. Heterotrophs; depend on external source of organic compounds 3. Plant cells- multi-cellular and have cell walls. . Anima ls- multi-cellular, no cell walls and are heterotrophs Cytoplasm – everything between plasma membrane and nuclear membrane, includes all membrane-bound organelles (except nucleus) Cytosol – only fluid component Endomembrane system – internal membranes that are either in direct contact or connected via transfer of vesicles (sacs of membrane). including: nuclear envelope / membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles Nucleus – stores genetic information Endomembrane System – creates intracellular compartments with different functions.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER; rough, smooth), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes. Mitochondria – generate energy to power the cell Chloroplasts – capture energy from sunlight, convert to carbohydrate Cytoskeleton – regulates cell shape, movements of materials within the cell, movement of the cell itself Flow of Traffic in EMS – Rough ER: synthesis of proteins for – ex port (secretion) – insertion into membranes – lysosomes Golgi apparatus: collection, packaging & distribution Lysosomes * cell ‘stomachs’ have enzymes that can digest †¦ * all 4 classes of biological macromolecules worn-out organelles (mitochondria replaced every 10 days) * material brought into cell by phagocytosis Phagocytosis – plasma membrane engulfs smaller molecule and then called phagosome. Lysosome takes it in and digests, small particles are releases into the cytoplasm. Autophagy – lysosome digests a damaged organelle, small particles are released into cytosol. mitochondria (all eukaryotic cells) and chloroplasts (plant cells): * contain DNA that encodes some (but not all) of their own proteins * have unusual double layers of membranesOrigin of Eukaryotic Cells: Endosymbiont Theory * once believed that eukaryotes evolved gradually, organelles becoming more and more complex * now accepted that early eukaryotes originated as preda tors * certain organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts) evolved from smaller prokaryotes engulfed by larger cell * later chloroplasts and the ability to perform photosynthesis Symbiosis – Mutual Advantage advantage to host cell: * aerobic respiration (aerobic bacteria mitochondria) * photosynthesis (cyanobacteria chloroplasts) advantage to bacteria: * protected environment supply of carbon compounds from host cell’s other prey Evidence Supporting Endosymbiont Theory mitochondria and chloroplasts †¦ * are similar size to bacteria, reproduced by fission like bacteria * have double membranes, consistent with engulfing mechanism * have their own ribosomes, which resemble those of prokaryotes rather than eukaryotes in terms of size, composition and sensitivity to antibiotics * have their own genomes, which are organized like those of bacteria last but not least: * are genetically similar to proposed ‘parent’ bacteria rather than ukaryotic cells Cytoskeleton important in: * cell shape * cell motility * movement / position of organelles * movement of materials within cell * movement of chromosomes during mitosis Cytoplasm in a living cell is never static * cytoskeleton is constantly being taken apart and rebuilt * organelles and vesicles are racing back and forth * can cross the cell in ~ 1 second * unattached proteins moving randomly, but rapidly * can visit every corner of the cell within a few seconds * contents of cytosol are in constant thermal motionCommon to all cells: * selectively permeable plasma membrane * genetic code; mechanism of transcription and translation * ATP for the transfer of energy and metabolic pathways Model Organisms 45 Unit 2a – Intro to Cellular Chemistry Most Common Elements in Living Organisms: * C H O N – make up 96% – also P and S are common too * Exist as complex macromolecules and simpler forms like water and carbon dioxide nucleus – dense core in centre, consists of protons and neutrons electrons – continually orbit the nucleus # of protons – defining feature of an element = atomic number – # protons + # neutrons = mass of an atom = mass number – by default, an atom is ‘neutral’, with # protons = # electrons – electrons influence reactivity of an atom †¦ Atomic mass = atomic number + # of neutrons (electrons are neglected because mass is so small) Isotopes – same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the same element Anion – gain electron and are negatively charged Cation – lose electron and are positively chargedOutermost ‘valence’ shell influences an atom’s reactivity * electrons in outermost shell valence electrons * unpaired valance electrons determine the number of bonds an atom can make * atoms with filled valance shell = most stable, atoms that are closest to filling are most reactive * elements abundant in organisms have at least one u npaired valence electron Some Definitions: covalent bonds – two or more atoms share pairs of valence electrons * strong bonds of biological systems non-covalent bonds, including * ionic bonds * hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) * hydrophobic interactions olecule – group of atoms held together by energy in a stable association compound – molecule composed of two or more different types of atoms Types of Covalent Bonds * electrons shared ‘equally’ * non-polar covalent bond * can be single (like H2), double (O2) or even triple, depending on number of electrons shared * electrons not shared equally * polar covalent bond * one of the atoms has a stronger pull on the electrons than the other * pull on electrons = electronegativity * water is the most abundant molecule in biological organisms * human body is ~70% water water as a solvent can dissolve more types of molecules than other molecule known * the polarity of water is key to its role in biology hydrogen bon ding – electrical attraction between electronegative atom and partial positive of hydrogen hydrophobic – no affinity for water – â€Å"water fearing† hydrophilic – affinity for water – â€Å"water loving† Acid-base Reaction substance that gives up (donates) protons acid (increases [H+] in solution) substance that accepts protons base (decreases [H+] in solution) chemical reaction that involves transfer of protons acid-base reaction * most olecules act as either an acid or a base * water can be both (both gives up and accepts protons) weak acid: very few molecules dissociated (acetic acid, water) strong acid: readily gives up protons (hydrochloric acid) when pH = pKa species is 50% ionized Carbon is the most important element in biology carbon atoms give biomolecules their shape but other atoms attached to carbons determine their reactivity * critical H, N, O containing attachments called functional groups *learn orgo functional groups for this courseMacromolecules * large, organized molecules that are typically created by polymerization * biological macromolecules (biomolecules) provide the structure and carry out the activities of a cell 4 groups: * carbohydrates(polysaccharides) * lipids(fats) * proteins * nucleic acids * monomers of groups are different – chemical reactions used to make the chains are similar Overview of Macromolecules 3 Proteins – more functions than any other group of macromolecule * enzymes – catalysis; accelerate chemical reactions transport – through cell membranes, in circulation * support – cytoskeleton, fibres of cartilage, hair, nails * signalling / regulatory – hormones, membrane proteins, intracellular messengers * movement- of the cell itself – contractile proteins, flagella – within the cell – motor proteins * defense – antibodies, complement proteins Proteins are Polymers * amino acids are connected in linear polymers of a specific sequence * 20 genetically encoded amino acid monomers to pick from * string of amino acids (AAs) = peptide or polypeptide polypeptide folded and coiled into a specific conformation = protein * sometimes 2 or more peptide chains (subunits) combine to form mature, functional protein Amino Acid Structure AAs are ionized under physiological conditions ionization increases solubililty, facilitates interactions with each other and other solutes, increases reactivity (zwitterions) 7 non-ionized ionized R group unique to each AA oxygens tend to pull electrons away, making it easy to lose proton gains a proton Amino Acid Side Chains – R Groups: * nonpolar – hydrophobic R groups no charged or electronegative atoms to form H bonds * insoluble in water * R groups bury themselves with the peptide chain to ‘hide’ from water * polar side chains – soluble in water * uncharged – but partial charges can form H-bonds * charged – gr oups containing acids or bases – highly soluble in water AA are linked together by covalent peptide bonds: carbon from carboxyl group is linked to N terminus of amino group. R groups and central C’s do not participate in the bond. Condensation Reaction – making the chain Hydrolysis – breaking the chain Polypeptide chain: side chains extend from peptide-bonded backbone * chain is flexible – can rotate at single bonds on either side of peptide bonds * so side chains are not all projecting to one side! * chains can be from 2-3 to thousands of AAs in length * backbone is directional, convention is to number AA ‘residues’ starting at N terminus this is the primary sequence Sickle Cell Anemia – disease in which red blood cells are abnormally shaped. Caused by single point mutation which results in substitution of single amino acid in one chain of hemoglobin protein Protein Structure:Primary Structure – unique sequence of amino acids Secondary Structure – Folding into elements of structure, hydrogen bonding between amino acids(R groups not involved). 2 shapes: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet(parallel and antiparallel). * learn more Tertiary Structure- interactions of elements of secondary structure forming a global fold, folded into these unique shapes by ionic bonds (electrostatic),hydrogen bonds, disulphide bridges, hydrophobic interaction, van der waals – dipole-dipole(all non-covalent except for S-S). Order of amino acids determines final shape.Maintain globular shape even if very weak. Quaternary Structure – more than one polypeptide chain put together to form the final functional protein, linked by covalent and non-covalent interactions. Protein Domain – segment of polypeptide that forms a compact, stable and independently folding structure. Often the building blocks for larger, more complex proteins. Disulfide bonds * covalent stabilization of protein structure found i n secreted proteins (destined for a more hostile extracellular environment) * formed in ER (oxidizing environment)Once folded, do proteins ever unfold? changes in physical or chemical conditions (pH, salt concentration, temperature) disruption of H-bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, etc that maintain the protein’s shape protein ‘denatures’ or unfolds Possible to renature Do proteins ever fold incorrectly? any mutation that leads to a missing or incorrect amino acid can lead to incorrectly folded protein WHY 32 Possible outcomes: mutation – leads to incorrectly folded protein * protein never functions properly loss of function protein folds properly at first but unfolds under certain conditions eventually loss of function * protein misfolds AND is deposited in insoluble aggregates within cell * loss of function and disruption of other aspects of cell activity * many human diseases now known to be associated with misfolded proteins . Alzheimers, cystic f ibrosis, type II diabetes, retinitis pigmentosa, Parkinsons, Creutzfeldt-Jakob, some cancers *read about catalysts and enzymes in Janelle’s notes, page 8-9 Nucleic Acids: Information Polymers * deoxy ribo nucleic acid (DNA) sequence of subunits in DNA polymer directs RNA synthesis * ribo nucleic acid (RNA) * RNA directs ordering of AAs in a peptide chain * information stored as DNA sequences enables living organisms to pass on hereditary information * also allows each cell to pass on hereditary information to the next generation of cells Monomers of Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribo nucleotides – phosphate + deoxyribose + nitrogenous base(A,C, G, or T) Ribo nucleotides – phosphate + ribose + base (A,C,G, or U) Nucleic acids are linear (unbranched) polymers of nucleotides * each nucleotide consists of three parts: * a nitrogenous base a (5-carbon) pentose sugar * a phosphate group Purines = A&GPyramidines= C,T and U * Ribose + base = nucleoside * Ribose + base + phosphate = nucleotide Functions of Nucleotides * monomeric units of RNA and DNA * important signal molecules within cells * cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) * important agents in energy transfer reactions * cleave off phosphate group to release stored energy * act as coenzymes – organic non-protein molecules required for enzyme function * usually adenine-containing nucleotides combined with B vitamins 8 condensation reaction 5’ end – beginning of chain. Chains always built 5’ 3’.Look at above example phosphate group is 5’ 3’ end – where new bases can be added Polymerization rxn’s are endergonic: * making phosphodiester bonds requires energy * energy comes from addition of 2 phosphate groups. * Activated nucleotides = nucleotide triphophates The most famous phosphorylated nucleotide †¦ adenosine triphosphate = ATP 11 adenine 4’ 5’ 5 6 1 2 3 9 4 8 7 1’ 3’ 2’ O P CH2 O O O– P O O O– P O –O O– OH OH O NH2 N N N N ribose adenine + ribose (= adenosine) Secondary Structure of DNA: two strands of DNA align in ‘antiparallel’ arrangement with bases facing inwards. H-bonds form between bases. P P P P P P P P C C G G AA T T P O O O O O O O O O O O C G OH P Note: 3 H-bonds between C and G, 2 between A and T. Only space in the sugar phosphate backbone is for Pyramidine and Purine to bond together. Features of DNA Double Helix * stabilized by H-bonds between complementary bases and hydrophobic interactions between bases * entire molecule water-soluble because charged phosphates backbone face outward * major and minor grooves are significant in regulation of gene transcription Higher Order DNA Structure: DNA molecules can adopt higher order structure – Allows for compact packaging and strict regulation of gene expression RNA vs DNA like DNA: sugar-phosphate backbone covalently linked by phosphodiester bonds * 4 different bases unl ike DNA: * uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) * pairing is A-U, C-G * sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose * hydroxyl group makes ribose much more reactive * RNA is much less stable than DNA Secondary Structure of RNA: like DNA: * H-bonds form between complementary base pairs unlike DNA: * most of the time, this base-pairing is between bases on the same strand * leads to formation of ‘stem and loop’ structures with single-stranded regions and double-stranded antiparallel regions * H-bonding is spontaneous, stabilizes the molecule final molecule is single-stranded * Complex folds can result in some RNA having catalytic activity Carbohydrates * Group of molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio: (CH2O)n Only monomers are in this ratio, oligomers you lose water * Monomer=monosaccharide * Dimer=disaccharide * Trimer=trisaccharide/oligosaccharide Types: 1. Monosaccharides – simple sugars 2. Oligosaccharides – small chains (oligo=few) * Attached to proteins – glycoproteins * Attached to lipids – glycolipids 3. Polysaccharides – very long sugar chains Typical Structural Features of Sugar Monomers: carbonyl group (either ketone or aldehyde) * lots of -OH groups * vary in length of carbon skeleton (C3, C5, C6, †¦) – triose, pentose, hexose * isomeric forms (glucose, fructose, galactose) * identical chemical groups arranged differently * monosaccharides often form rings in solution Isomers – same atoms, different arrangements structural isomer – identical groups but bonded to different carbons stereo (optical) isomer – identical groups bonded to same carbons but in different orientations sixteen different hexose structures possible, all with formula C6H12O6 C OH C OH OH H C OH H HO C H C O H C OH H H C OH H C OH H C OH H HO C H H C OH H structural isomer stereo- isomer H C C O HO C H H C OH H C OH H HO C H H C OH H fructose glucose galactose *arrangement of hydrox yl groups make a big difference in biological function Disaccharide – 2 sugar monomer: * glucose + fructose = sucrose(table sugar) * glucose + lactose = lactose * glucose + glucose = maltose Formation of disaccharides by condensation reactions. monomers are linked when C1 of one monosaccharide binds to a C on another – often C4 geometry of bond different depending on hether OH group of C1 is in ? or ? position which C of other sugar is involved in linkage 7 C1, ? C4 ?-glucose ?-glucose maltose, ? -1,4 glycosidic bond ?-galactose ?-glucose lactose, ? -1,4 glycosidic bond (glucose has flipped over) C1, ? C4 Polymerization to build Polysaccharides starch both are storage forms for energy starch – plants; glycogen – animals both consist of ? -glucose monomers linked by ? -1,4 bonds both coil into a helix (due to geometry of linkages) starch is mixture of unbranched amylose and branched amylopectin glycogen is highly branched lycogen Structural Polysaccharide in Plants: Cellulose 9 polymer of ? -glucose, joined by ? -1,4 linkages each glucose is flipped relative to adjacent ones allows for H-bonding between adjacent strands extremely stable most abundant organic molecule on earth parallel strands joined by H-bonds Structural Polysaccharide in Animals: Chitin a component of cell walls of fungi, exoskeletons of arthropods (insects, crustaceans), radulas of molluscs, beaks of cephalopods second most abundant organic molecule on earth like cellulose, joined by ? 1,4 linkages but rather than glucose, monomer is N-acetylglucosamine like cellulose, also strengthened by H-bonding btw strands 10 Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria: Peptidoglycan component of bacterial cell walls the most complex CHO so far! two different alternating monomers linked by ? -1,4 bonds chain of amino acids attached to one of the sugars – peptide bonds instead of H-bonds (stronger) Significance of how monosaccharides are linked: * ? -1-4 linkages of starch and glycogen readily hydrolyzed * ? 1-4 linkages in structural polysaccharides very resistant to enzymatic degradation For example: enzymes that digest cellulose (cellulase) produced only by certain classes of bacteria, fungi and protozoa Difference between glycosidic bonds from peptide and phosphodiester bonds: in common: * condensation reactions different: * peptide and phosphodiester bonds always occur at the same position within their monomers * each sugar monomer has several hydroxyl groups, and geometry of glycosidic bonds is highly variable Functions of Carbohydrates: Structural: * cellulose, chitin and peptidoglycanCell-cell recognition: * membrane proteins covalently bonded to oligosaccharides Energy Storage * ? -1,4 –linkages of starch and glycogen are readily hydrolyzed to release stored energy Lipids * group of carbon-containing compounds that are largely non-polar / hydrophobic * significant proportion of a given lipid molecule is hydrocarbon * the only macromolecul e that is not a polymer major groups of lipids in cells: * fats / oils – energy storage * sterols * cholesterol – membrane component * steroids – hormones * * Phospholipids * major component of biological membranesFats (Triacylglycerols, Triglycerides) * form that fat is stores in apidose tissie * glycerol with 3 fatty acids attached * the link between glycerol and fatty acid = ester bond: condenstation rxn (liberates water) * hydrophobic * fatty acid(carboxylic acid with long hydrocarbon tail) Saturated Fatty Acid – have maximum number of hydrogen atoms on each atom; straight and flexible because of only single bonds Unsaturated Fatty Acid – contain at least 1 double bond. The double bond is rigid and creates a kink in the chain. The rest of the chain however is free to rotate about C-C bonds.Cis – H on the same side of double bond; don’t solidify easily Trans – H on the opposite side of the double bond. Hydrogenation – making a fat saturated/more solid at room temperature to improve shelf life therefore less healthy. Sterols – group of steroids based on cholesterol(important component of cell membrane) Phospholipids : * 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group(polar head group) * Amphipathic = hydrophilic and hydrophilic regions – their most important feature with respect to biology Micelles – sphere with hydrophobic tails ‘hiding’ in centre . Can only occur with relatively short tails Lipid Bilayer:Universal Structure for all Biological Membranes composition varies with: type of organism (prokaryote vs animal vs plant vs †¦) type of cell within organism (muscle, liver, sperm, egg, †¦) type of membrane within cell (plasma membrane, Golgi, ER) inner versus outer layer different patches or ‘domains’ within a particular membrane Fig 11-4 two closely apposed sheets of lipids, studded with proteins lipids serve as permeability barrier protei ns perform most of the functions carbohydrates (sugars) attached to protein and lipids in a non-random manner *all membrane lipids are amphipathic Lipid bilayers form spontaneously: hydrophobic molecules would exclude water, clustering together to minimize energy cost of organizing water molecules * form large droplets or surface film * amphipathic molecules are subject to conflicting forces * solved by formation of bilayer * energetically most favourable stable, spontaneous * lipid bilayers are †¦ * closed – no free edges * self-sealing * important feature for cell fusion, budding, locomotion Fluid Mosaic Model * The plasma membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral components such as lipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or sideways throughout the membrane.That means the membrane is not solid, but more like a ‘fluid'. * phospholipids are constantly moving spinning in place; travelling laterally within ‘leaflet’ * phospholipids are occasionally ‘flipped’ to the opposite leaflet during membrane synthesis but they rarely ‘flop’ back * even proteins cruise slowly through the membrane! Membrane fluidity – how easily lipid molecules move within a membrane leaflet Alignment of phospholipid tails * tightly packed tails membrane more viscous, less fluid * freely moving tails higher fluidity What aspects of phospholipid composition influence this? length of fatty acids * from 14-24 carbons, 18-20 carbons most common * degree of saturation of fatty acids # double bonds * typically one saturated fatty acid and one with one or more double bonds Cholesterol: * under physiological conditions, cholesterol makes membrane stiffer – less fluid * cholesterol can make up to 50% of plasma membrane lipid in some animal cells Regulation of Membrane Fluidity: – fluid state must be maintained for normal cell function strategies for maintaining membrane fluidity: * chang e composition of membranes * alter phospholipids desaturate fatty acids (to deal with cold) eg cold water vs warm water fish * change length of FA chains (yeast, bacteria) * adjust amounts of cholesterol (animals) these mechanisms have been demonstrated in: * pond fish dealing with dramatic day / night temp differences * cold-resistant plants * extremophile bacteria living in hot springs * winter wheat preparing for autumn ^ polyunsaturated FAs * sperm reduce their cholesterol just before fertilization †¦ Functions of Lipids: * storage of chemical energy * signal molecules * vitamins * wax coating on leaves * biological membranes

Endangered Language essays

Endangered Language essays Ingrian, one of the languages of Russia, is an endangered language. When a language is classified as "endangered" it means that the language is in danger of extinction. Languages become extinct for a variety of reasons, but the most typical one is that it is no longer spoken by a majority of people in a culture or nation. Because of this its value is undermined, it is seldom taught to subsequent generations, and it eventually dies out with the few remaining individuals who can speak it. Ingrian is such a language. Ingrian is one of the smaller Finnic languages Ingria is located at the westernmost part of Russia, on the south beach of Finnish Gold of Baltic Sear, near Saint Petersburg (Agranat 2002). While a culture known as the Votes inhabited the region that is Ingria before Ingrians, with the arrival of the Ingrians in the sixteenth century. After the peace treaties of Stolbovo and Karde, Finnish peasants moved to north and central Ingria. Because of this there are Ingrians and Ingrian Finns, but both call their common language suomen kieli (inkerin)" or Ingrian, (The Ingrians 2004, 1). There are statistics on Ingrians from the mid-19th century to contemporary times. According to census records, in 1848 there were 76,069 Ingrians in Ingria but this number declined to 16,239 by 1979, (The Ingrians 2003). Of this small number of Ingrians remaining in Ingria, only 51.9% spoke Ingrian (The Ingrians 2004). However, according to a 1989 Census conducted by Ethnologue, only 302 of the 10,000-15,000 Ingrians remaining are fluent in Ingrian, (Ingrian 2003). One of the biggest reasons for the decline of Ingrians and their language is their persecution and dispersion by the Russians. Because of the location of Ingria on the Russian-Swedish border, by the early 1900s Ingria was claimed to be historically a part of Russia. As such, the Ingrians living in Ingria at t...

Tips For Dealing with a Bad Boss

Tips For Dealing with a Bad Boss Jill Jacinto, HuffPo’s â€Å"Millennial Expert† has some suggestions for handling outrageous boss requests that cross the line from demanding to ridiculous. It’s harder than it sounds! At my first editorial assistant job out of college, they hired an executive who didn’t understand that my job was supporting the whole department- he was used to having a personal secretary and didn’t realize that I was not there to manage his calendar or handle his lunch order. But I couldn’t just say â€Å"sorry, you’re out of luck.† I had to deftly navigate the intersection of the professional and the political- and you can do it too!Say Yes, then Ask QuestionsAccording to Robert Hosking, the Executive Director of OfficeTeam who spoke with Jacinto, it’s better to try to be helpful instead of pointing to your job description and shrugging. If it’s something way outside of your typical roster of tasks, it’s probably worth ask ing your boss after the task is done if you can clarify their expectations and priorities for your workflow.If you’re at the bottom of the office hierarchy, it’s possible they’ll just add â€Å"gofer† to the list, but at least you’ll have directed their attention back to the job you were hired to do. You can also go to HR and ask them to mediate a discussion, particularly if you feel you’re being taken advantage of.Stay Away from NegativityRoy Cohen, author of The Wall Street Professional’s Survival Guide, suggests an anti-â€Å"Just Say No† response. If you refuse to go above and beyond, someone else probably will, and you’ll start to get a reputation as a non-starter.If you decide you do need to turn down an ask, try responses that show you’re capable of compromising and also fully loaded with to-dos, like â€Å"I’m just now finishing up a project on deadline- if this request needs to come first, I can s et it aside, just let me know if I should rearrange.† or â€Å"Is it possible to tackle this first thing in the morning? I can come in as early as you need me, but I have a prior commitment tonight†Politely Ask for ClarificationWith a boss who seems inclined to just keep piling on the demands, or worse, micromanaging how you fulfill them, sometimes it’s helpful to turn into the skid and ask for more clarification.Try questions like, â€Å"And would you like me to do X? How should I approach Y? Can you take a look at this and tell me if I’m on the right track?† This serves a dual purpose- it lets them weigh in at every step so you don’t waste your time on something they’ll ask you to re-do, and it makes you enough of a pain that they may micromanage less.When Requests Become UnreasonableWhenever I’m trying to decide if a request is reasonable or not, I try to mentally review the give-and-take dynamics in the office as a whole. If I’m in a company where the culture is to pitch in, I try to go with the flow a little more. If everyone else pretty much sticks to their lane and I suspect I’m being tapped as the youngest, or as a woman, or as most likely to be accommodating against my own self-interest, I might try to propose a compromise rather than just saying yes.I spent some time at a very small nonprofit with a boss who was, to say it politely, very hands-on. I’d been responsible for compiling a video slideshow for our annual benefit, which was only a few days away, and the video editor we’d hired was late turning around a final cut. My boss insisted I make the trek to the editor’s apartment after work and deliver the DVD to her apartment, which meant staying late at the office and walking over to get it in the pouring rain, then taking an express bus uptown and arriving home close to 11.I was wet, cold, and miserable by the time I had the DVD in my hand. To make matters wo rse, my boss wasn’t picking up the phone to confirm I should drop it off that night, so I finally gave up and went home.My boss was leaving me furious messages by the time I got back to my apartment–despite the fact that she’d been unreachable. She told me I should have gone to another coworker’s apartment to view it–she didn’t even trust me to watch a 15 minute video! I quit about a month later. If it have been a larger office, or I had been older than 22, I would have tried some of the other strategies before I gave up–but sometimes unrelenting inappropriate requests are a sign that you’re working in the wrong office.

Personal Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Lab report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Lab report - Essay Example Understanding of soil is an essential area of study in civil engineering. It is critically important to carry out the analysis of soil prior to initiate any construction. The analysis of soil yields soil related various important factors that include the interaction of soil with the structure over a time through various weather conditions, types of structure soil can support etc. The analysis of soil composition reveals that there are three types of soil namely cohesion less, cohesive, and organic soils. In cohesion less soil the soil particles remain apart from each other. The example of such soil is sand, gravel and silt. Cohesive soils consist of very tiny particles that have characteristic to stick together in presence of water due to attractive forces present among them. Clay is an example of such soil2. Organic soils have spongy, compressible and crumbly nature and because of because of its unstable nature are strongly undesirable for any scale of construction. Depending of the soil various layers depth, all three types are further divided into various sub-categories and construction is carried out while considering these sub-layers i.e. shallow foundations is located in the first layer below the structure, followed by the individual footing (sub plate) between boundary layers, and uprooting sub paneling that sometimes used extreme environments (tundra )1. As enlarge footing size will increase the area of contact (area = B2), hence it increase the allowable bearing capacity qa of soil. By evaluating all these variables, the column load can be calculated which will be equal to the load on footing. As soil degradation also affect the footing hence the effect is indirectly transfer to columns and hence to the whole construction. In this experiment a specimen of soil with known % of water by weight has been prepared. The mass of sample is determined using an analytical balance