Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 3

Strategic Management - Essay Example This assists various firms to get by its complexity thus competing with a variety of factors that influence the operation of business in a specific area. The marketing system of a company must operate within the framework of forces that are made up of the system’s environment. The core environmental forces are external variables, which are not easily manipulated by the board of directors of the organization. Adequate planning must be put in place in order to make sure that the business environment is suitable enough and ready to put the firm or rather organization to the excellent position in the market region. In case a business structure is not well conversant of the environment in which it operates, then it will definitely face challenges that arises from the increasing complexity of the environment within the parameter of operation. The simplest and best method to conduct the analysis of the complex environment in which a business operates is through the PEST analysis concept that simply analyses the elements of Political, Economic, Socio-cultural and Technological factors that causes impact to the organization. The extern al environment entails variables of opportunities and threats that the top management within the organization cannot control within the short-run. This concept involves monitoring and evaluation of information from external and internal sources. This is always done in order to know the position of the organization within its environment of operation. Through this, an organization will know whether it has a competitive advantage or it is on the position that is not favourable. Through this process, the organization will face challenges arising from the complexity of the environment of operation. The concept of understanding the management strategy and effectiveness of an organization is not that easy since it

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods For many years qualitative and quantitative methods of research were seen as two distinct methods which could not be combined due to their differences. However, the combination of quantitative and qualitative methods has become widely advocated by researchers due to its pragmatism; as Douglas puts it: Since all research methods have costs and benefits, and since they differ greatly in their particular costs and benefits, a researcher generally finds it best to use some combination or mixture of methods. (1976:30) However, it is an imperative for any researcher to take into consideration the technicalities and complexities of combining research methods. This essay will argue that it is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative methods; furthermore, it is desirable. It is often said that two opposites usually attract and there is no divergence in this instance, even though it is said that the only similarities these two methodological positions share are many of the same characters in their names. This essay will begin by briefly explaining the two methods. It will secondly highlight the embedded methods argument and criticise it in order to justify the desirability of combining the two methods. This essay then aims to to dispel the common argument that combining the two methods is not desirable due to many researchers not having the relavent expertise. This essay will then analyse the purist criticisms of combining quantitative and qualitative methods before it presents the pragmatist p osition which highlights the desirability of combining qualitative and quantitative methods. This essay then argues that triangulation shows that it is both possible and desirable to combine the two methods, due to it contributing to the completeness and conformation of research. In conclusion this essay will argue that it is both desirable and possible to combine quantitative and qualitative methods and that mixed methods research has nearly won the paradigm wars due to its substance. Quantitative research methods tend to be ontologically foundationalist in that both natural and social phenomena are assumed to have an existence that is independent of the activities of the human observer (Blaikie, 2007: 13). Therefore, they believe in objectivity in research being possible. Research of this sort is usually epistemologically positivist, in that they believe that social science is analogous to the natural sciences. They look for causal explanations through the use of scientific laws in order to explain social phenomena thus developing explanatory, and indeed predictive, models. (Marsh and Furlong, 2002: 20). Examples of quantitative data are questionnaires, structured interviews and statistical analysis of official data. Whereas qualitative research methods tend to be ontologically anti-foundationalist in that what we regard as the external world is just appearances and has no independent existence apart from our thoughts (2007: 13). Therefore, the world is socially or discursively constructed and as a result objectivity in research is not possible. They usual encompass a non-positivist epistemology such as the interpretist tradition in which these researchers are concerned with understanding, not explanation, focuses on the meaning that actions have for agentsand offers their results as one interpretation of the relationship between the social phenomena studied. (2002: 21) Qualitative research usually works with smaller amounts of data unlike quantitative research. Some variants of qualitative research are focus groups, case studies and unstructured interviews. One of the main criticisms of combining qualitative and quantitative methods lies with the embedded methods argument that is posed by researchers who take a purist stance. They argue that quantitative and qualitative methods cannot be combined as this will compromise ones ontological and epistemological position. According to Marsh and Furlong your ontological and epistemological positions are like a skin not a sweater (2002: 17). Therefore, researchers cannot interchange between their adopted positions for different research projects as they reflect fundamental different approaches to what social science is and how we do it (2002: 21). They argue that the researchers ontological and epistemological positions affect all aspects of ones research. So for example, if one is ontologically foundationalist they cannot also argue people are able to socially construct certain aspects of life, such as gender. Or if you are epistemologically interpritivist you cannot use the natural sciences a s a precursor in the study of the social sciences. As shown above there certainly are differences amongst the two methods; however, does this mean it is undesirable to combine the two? It is very important for researchers to take into account their ontological and epistemological positions (as shown above they play an important role within research), although, researchers should not treat their ontological and epistemological positions as the most fundamental aspect for research. Combining the two methods is desirable, as one must not be overwhelmed by the higher philosophical debate, as many researchers have been in the past, because this makes you forget that as a researcher undertaking a project you wish to undertake the best research possible and in order to do this you must understand that each method has a very crucial role to play in furthering our grasp and knowledge of the research question. Therefore one must understand that Qualitative and quantitative research makes up a false dichotomy There are many right ways to approa ch research, not only one right way. (Newman et al cited in Teddie and Tashakkori, 2009:28) Therefore, this idea that the different research methods have fixed epistemological and ontological positions that cannot be compromised is very hard to sustain. It is hard to sustain because, as critical realists argue, one can see the world as being both ontologically foundationalist and anti-foundationalist, in that you could believe that the world exists and is independent to a certain extent as the knowledge about it is socially constructed. Also, epistemologically, yes it is important to take into account your epistemological stance; however, there are certain instances when it is necessary to look at the research question from a positivist stance and other instances when the research should be interpretivist. As Howe illustrates through the use of Kaplans story, were a drunken man searches under a lamp for his, which he had dropped a fair distance away. When asked why he was looking there and not where he dropped it, he said that the reason was because it was lighter where he was looking. Howe then argues that The incompatibility thesis, like the drunkards search, permits the lights to determine what is to be looked for and where. But why should paradigms determine the kind of work one may do with inquiry any more than the amount of illumination should determine where one may conduct a search? (Howe, 1988: 13). Whilst considering whether or not it is possible and desirable to combine quantitative and qualitative research, one has come across a common argument in many articles and books. This being, that many researchers, do not have the skills and training to carry out both quantitative and qualitative research (Bryman, 2008: 624). However, in my opinion this is understandable but ludicrous. Due to researchers in the past taking the position of either/or it is understandable that not all researchers have the necessary training to conduct such research, however, this is no excuse and it is time to take a more both-and perspective. It is almost like saying a goalkeeper that has learnt to save the ball on his left hand should not try and learn to use both hands even if it will improve his goalkeeping skills as this is how he has learnt to play. Therefore, this should not be used as an excuse, moreover, it should be more of an encouragement to overcome this challenge because as pragmatists argu e, as a researcher if you believe in this papers argument that combining the two methods are both desirable and possible then you as a researcher must strive to do whatever you can to produce the best possible research you can. Purists tend to emphasise the ontological, epistemological, and axiological (the role of values in inquiry) differences. This incompatibility thesis is well stated by Smith, who says: One approach takes a subject-object position on the relationship to subject matter; the other takes a subject-subject position. One separates facts and values, while the other sees them as inextricably mixed. One searches for laws, and the other seeks understanding. These positions do not seem compatible. (1983: 12) Therefore, according to these theorists it is neither possible nor desirable to combine qualitative and quantitative methods as you would only be dooming your research for failure due to the inherent differences between the methods. However, other researchers which come from a pragmatist background argue that this is not the case and the differences are exaggerated and overdrawn. Rather than being wed to a particular theoretical style and its most compatible method, one might instead combine methods that would encourage or even require integration of different theoretical perspectives to interpret the data. (Brewer Hunter, 1989: 74) Pragmatism thus is thus is the belief in the ability to combine qualitative and quantitative methods without compromising your ontological and epistemological positions. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie define the main characteristics of pragmatism as follows. It recognises the existence of this real world that positivists talk about but it also recognises this world which relies on socially and discursively constructed phenomena. For example, take gender again, it argues that yes gender does exist in that there are men and there are women, however, through discourse we have constructed gender in that we have attached further meaning to them (men are not meant to cry but instead should act manly, whilst women should be emotional and weak). It views knowledge as being both constructed and based on the reality of the world we experience and live in. It views theories instrumentally. It endorses empiricism as the way to find out what works. It endorses eclecticism and pluralism in that one can f ind different and conflicting perspectives useful to enhance ones understanding of people and the world. Also, current truth, meaning and knowledge are changing over time, therefore, one should treat research as only provisional truth at it could change in a matter of time (2004: 18). This is a very realistic way of overcoming many of the criticisms of purists when combining methods even though it has some criticism itself. When put under the microscope it has been deemed to be very practical. This pragmatist position has highlighted the desirability of combining qualitative and quantitative methods by unravelling the purist incompatibility thesis through the rejection of the historical dualisms commonly associated with these methods; and this essay will go on to proving that it is also possible to combine these methods. One way in which researchers can successfully combine qualitative and quantitative methods is through triangulation. Even though there are many methods of combining qualitative and quantitative methods, such as, completeness, offset, process. This essay will focus on triangulation due to the space and time limitations. The early use of the term triangulation was not found in social science but instead, navigation and surveying. This term was used to describe when different bearings are taken, in order to be lead to a specific physical location, however, the second bearing here was not used to check the first bearing but instead they work together in order to indentify that specific location(Brannen, 2005:12). Denzin distinguished between the triangulation within methods and the triangulation between methods. Although, this essay will concentrate on the triangulation between methods, it is important to note that the triangulation within methods is desirable if need be, however, it doe s not solve any of the fundamental problems inherited by single method research. The methodological triangulation of Denzin(1978) refers to the combination of multiple methods [as] no method alone can adequately treat all problems of discovery and testing.'(Mouton and Marais, 1996: 2006). Johnson and Onwuegbuzie take the term to mean, seeking convergence and corroboration of results from different methods and designs studying the same phenomenon (2004: 22). For Jick it is largely a vehicle for cross validation when two or more distinct methods are found to be congruent and yield comparable data. (1979: 602). It is already clear that the term triangulation has a plurality of meanings varying from researcher to researcher. However, the core principles of triangulation aim to increase the validity of studies, by overcoming the inherent biases and limitations of either of the methods through using two or more methods which lead to the same findings. Therefore, if someone was conducting a study to investigate the link between age and who you vote for, they should not only look at the statistics but also question people on why they voted the way they have, because there could be reasons such as tactical voting, were for example someone only voted Labour because they did not want the Conservatives to get elected and if the situation was different they would have ideally voted for the Liberal Democrats. The use of the two different methods can help you falsify and understand your results in much more depth than you would by just using the one method. Jick (1979) conducted a study of anxiety and job insecurity of employees during a merger. This study used data from, co-worker observations, interviews, questionnaires and company archival records. The use of the different sources of data allowed Jick to see different perspectives on the situations effects on the employees. Jick had also found that when the use of the different methods did not corroborate each other it led to him seeking explanations for divergent results [and as a result], the researcher may uncover unexpected results or unseen contextual factors (1979: 608). Jicks study shows that combining quantitative and qualitative methods through triangulation can lead to better research as an implication of the increased validity and sometimes vigour it contributes to the study in question. However, it is important to understand that the two methods should not be combined for the sake of it or just because a researcher believes that, more is good, as in many instances this is not the case. Therefore, researchers must make sure that they only combine research when the conditions are right. In conclusion, triangulation has not only shown that it is desirable to combine quantitative and qualitative methods, but it has also shown that it is possible to combine the two methods , due to it contributing to the completeness and conformation of research. One only has to look at the shifting of the so called paradigm wars (Oakley, 1999) in order to see that it is both possible and desirable to combine quantitative and qualitative methods. Since the beginning of this so called war the proponents of both quantitative and qualitative methods have criticised each others methods and defended their own. The lack of a clear winner was one of the main reasons the combination of the two methods became so popular in the past and now the mixed methods approach has become very popular. This essay has shown that it is both possible and desirable to combine the methods and The growing popularity of mixed methods research would seem to signal the end of the paradigm wars (2008: 625). Even though mixed method research has many difficulties and criticisms itself, I believe that its advantages outweigh its disadvantages by far, as it adds breadth and depth to the analysis of the research. As Mingers correctly points out, the attractiveness of multimeth od research, in terms of the richness and increased validity of the results, will work in its favour in the long run (2003: 246). Both this richness and validity talked about by many researchers such as Mingers, is a compelling argument for the combination of quantitative and qualitative research and this essay has shown that it is possible to combine the two methods through the use of triangulation. This essay began by briefly explaining the two methods. It then went on to highlight the embedded methods argument before criticising it for not being sustainable. This essay then dismissed the common argument that combining the two methods is not desirable due to many researchers not having the relevant expertise by arguing that due to the desirability and practicality of mixed methods approaches researcher should find a way to mix the two methods in order to undertake better research when necessary. This essay then analysed the purist criticisms of combining quantitative and qualitative methods before it presented the pragmatist position which highlighted the desirability of combining qualitative and quantitative methods. This essay then argued that triangulation shows that it is both possible and desirable to combine the two methods, due to it contributing to the completeness and conformation of research. This essay concluded by arguing that it is both desirable and possible to co mbine quantitative and qualitative methods and that mixed methods research has nearly won the paradigm wars. Bibliography Blaikie, Norman, (2007) Approaches to Social Enquiry, Polity Press: Cambridge Brewer, J., and Hunter, A, (1989) Multimethod research: A synthesis of styles, Sage: California. Bryman, Alan (2008) Social Research Methods, Oxford University Press: New York Creswell, J. W. (1995). Research Design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Sage: Thousand Oaks Douglas, Jack D. (1976) Investigative Social Research, Sage: Beverley Hills Denzin, N. K (1978) The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods, McGraw-Hill: New York Greenberg, J. and R. Folger (1988) Controversial issues in social research methods. Springer-Verlag: New York Guba, G. and E. Lincoln, (1994) Competing Paradigms in qualitative research, In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research (p105-117), Sage: Thousand Oaks Howe, Kenneth R. (1988). Against the quantitative-qualitative incompatibility thesis (or dogmas die hard). Educational researcher, Vol. 17, p.10-16. Marsh, David and Furlong, Paul, (2002) Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science in Marsh, David and Stoker, Gerry, Theory and Methods in Political Science, (MacMillan: Basingstoke), pp. 17-41 Mingers, John, (2003) The paucity of multimethod research: a review of the information systems literature, Info Systems Journal, Vol. 13, p. 233-249 Mouton, Johann and Marais HC, (1996) Basic Concepts: in the methodology of the social sciences, HSRC Publishers: Pretoria Jick, Todd D. (1979), Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 24, p. 602-611 Jick, Todd D. (1985). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. In Van Mannen (Ed.) Qualitative methodology (p135-148). Sage Publications: Beverly Hills Johnson, Burke R. And Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. (2004), Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come, Educational Researcher, Vol. 33, p. 14-26 Newman et al cited in Teddie, Charles and Tashakkori, Abbas, (2009), Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Sage Publications: California Oakley, Ann (1999), Paradigm wars: some thoughts on a personal and public trajectory, International Journal of social research methodology, Vol. 2, p. 247-254 Brannen, Julia, Mixed Methods Research: A discussion paper, NCRM Methods review papers, ESRC, Institute of Eduation, University of London Smith, John K. (1983) Quantitative versus qualitative research: An attempt to clarify the issue Educational Researcher, Vol.12, p. 6-13.

Christianity Essay -- Roman Catholic Protestant Eastern Orthodox

Christianity is the religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Most followers of Christianity, called Christians, are members of one of three major groups--Roman Catholic, Protestant, or Eastern Orthodox. These groups have different beliefs about Jesus and His teachings. But all consider Jesus central to their religion. Most Christians believe God sent Jesus into the world as the Savior. Christianity teaches that humanity can achieve salvation through Jesus. Jesus lived in Judea (later called Palestine), a Middle Eastern land ruled by the Romans. The Romans crucified Jesus about A.D. 30. Jesus' followers were convinced that He rose from the dead, and they soon spread Christianity to major cities throughout the Roman Empire. Today, Christians make up the largest religious group in the world. Christianity has about 1 1/2 billion followers. It is the major religion in Europe, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia. Many Christians also live in Africa and Asia. Christianity has had an enormous influence on Western civilization, especially on art, literature, and philosophy. The teachings of Christianity have had a lasting effect on the conduct of business, government, and social relations. Beliefs Christians believe that there is one God, and that He created the universe and continues to care for it. The belief in one God was first taught by the Jewish religion. Christianity teaches that God sent His Son, Jesus, into the world as His chosen servant, called the Messiah (Christos in Greek), to help people fulfill their religious duties. Christianity also teaches that after Jesus' earthly life, God's presence remained on earth in the form of the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost. The belief that in one God there are three Persons--the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit--is known as the doctrine of the Trinity. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and many Protestant churches accept this doctrine as the central teaching of Christianity. Some Christians regard Jesus as a great but human teacher. However, most Christians view Jesus as God incarnate--that is, a divine being who took on the human appearance and characteristics of a man. They believe that Jesus is the Savior who died to save humanity from sin. According to this view, Jesus' death made salvation and eternal life possible for others. Christians gather in ... ...e body of thought that included science and philosophy. The scholastics wished to reach a better understanding of Christian faith through reason. Saint Anselm, an early scholastic, attempted to prove God's existence through logic. In the 1200's, Saint Thomas Aquinas produced the most important scholastic work, the Summa Theologica. In it, he brought Christian doctrine into harmony with the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Monasteries were centers of learning throughout the Middle Ages. In the 1200's, members of new religious orders, called friars, began to work among the people. Franciscan friars followed the selfless example of Saint Francis of Assisi, who founded their order in 1209. Franciscans were noted for their loving service to others. The Dominican order, founded in 1216 by Saint Dominic, became noted for its scholarship. During the Middle Ages, Christian armies tried to recapture Palestine, which had been conquered by Muslim Turks. These military expeditions, known as Crusades, began just before 1100 and ended in the late 1200's. The crusaders failed to hold the Holy Land. But their contact with the East greatly influenced European culture.

Literature of Knowledge Essay

First printed in The North Briton Review, August, 1848, as part of a review of The Works of Alexander Pope, ed. W. Roscoe, 1847. What is it that we mean by literature? Popularly, and amongst the thoughtless, it is held to include everything that is printed in a book. Little logic is required to disturb that definition. The most thoughtless person is easily made aware that in the idea of literature one essential element is, ? some relation to a general and common interest of man, so that what applies only to a local or professional or merely personal interest, even though presenting itself in the shape of a book, will not belong to literature. So far the definition is easily narrowed; and it is as easily expanded. For not only is much that takes a station in books not literature, but, inversely, much that really is literature never reaches a station in books. The weekly sermons of Christendom, that vast pulpit literature which acts so extensively upon the popular mind? to warn, to uphold, to renew, to comfort, to alarm? does not attain the sanctuary of libraries In the ten-thousandth part of its extent. The drama as for instance the finest of Shakespeare’s plays in England and all leading Athenian plays in the noontide of the Attic stage, operated as a literature on the public mind, and were (according to the strictest letter of that term) published through the audiences that witnessed their representation, some time before they were published as things to be read: and they were published in this scenical mode of publication with much more effect than they could have had as books during ages of costly copying or of costly printing. Books, therefore, do not suggest an idea co-extensive and interchangeable with the idea of literature, since much literature, scenic, forensic, or didactic (as from lectures and public orators), may never come into books, and much that does come into books may connect itself with no literary interest. But a far more important correction, applicable to the common vague idea of literature, is to be sought, not so much in a better definition of literature, as in a sharper distinction of the two functions which it fulfils. In that great social organ which, collectively, we call  literature, there may be distinguished two separate offices, that may blend and often do so, but capable, severally, of a severe insulation, and naturally fitted for reciprocal repulsion. There is, first, the literature of knowledge, and secondly, the literature of power. The function of the first is to teach; the function of the second is to move: the first is a rudder; the second an oar or a sail. The first speaks to the mere discursive understanding; the second speaks ultimately, it may happen, to the higher understanding, or reason, but always through affections of pleasure and sympathy. Remotely it may travel towards an object seated in what Lord Bacon calls dry light; but proximately it does and must operate? else it ceases to be a literature of power-on and through that humid light which clothes itself in the mists and glittering iris of human passions, desires, and genial emotions. Men have so little reflected on the higher functions of literature as to find it a paradox if one should describe it as a mean or subordinate purpose of books to give information. But this is a paradox only in the sense which makes it honorable to be paradoxical. Whenever we talk in ordinary language of seeking information or gaining knowledge, we understand the words as connected with something of absolute novelty. But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds: it exists eternally, by way of germ or latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted. To be capable of transplantation is the immediate criterion of a truth that ranges on a lower scale. Besides which, there is a rarer thing than truth, namely, power, or deep sympathy with truth. What is the effect, for instance, upon society, of children? By the pity, by the tenderness, and by the peculiar modes of admiration, which connect themselves with the helplessness, with the innocence, and with the simplicity of children, not only are the primal affections strengthened and continually renewed, but the qualities which are dearest in the sight of heaven-the frailty, for instance, which appeals to forbearance, the innocence which symbolizes the heavenly, and the simplicity which is most alien from the worldly-are kept up in perpetual remembrance, and their ideals are continually refreshed. A purpose of the same nature is answered by the higher literature, viz. , the literature of power. What do you learn from Paradise Lost? Nothing at all. What do you learn from a cookery-book? Something new, something that you did not know before, in every paragraph. But would you therefore put the wretched cookery-book on a higher level of estimation than the divine poem? What you owe to Milton is not any knowledge, of which a million separate items are still but a million of advancing steps on the same earthly level; what you owe is power, that is, exercise and expansion to your own latent capacity of sympathy with the infinite, where every pulse and each separate influx is a step upwards, a step ascending as upon a Jacob’s ladders from earth to mysterious altitudes above the earth. All the steps of knowledge, from first to last, carry you further on the same plane, but could never raise you one foot above your ancient level of earth; whereas the very first step in power is a flight, is an ascending movement into another element where earth is forgotten. Were it not that human sensibilities are ventilated and continually called out into exercise by the great phenomena of infancy, or of real life as it moves through chance and change, or of literature as it recombines these elements in the mimicries of poetry, romance, etc., it is certain that, like any animal power or muscular energy falling into disuse, all such sensibilities would gradually droop and dwindle. It is in relation to these great moral capacities of man that the literature of power, as contradistinguished from that of knowledge, lives and has its field of action. It is concerned with what is highest in man; for the Scriptures themselves never condescended to deal by suggestion or cooperation with the mere discursive understanding: when speaking of man in his intellectual capacity, the Scriptures speak not of the understanding, but of â€Å"the understanding heart, â€Å"?  making the heart, i. e. , the great intuitive (or non-discursive) organ, to be the interchangeable formula for man in his highest state of capacity for the infinite. Tragedy, romance, fairy tale, or epopee, all alike restore to man’s mind the ideals of justice, of hope, of truth, of mercy, of retribution, which else (left to the support of daily life in its realities) would languish for want of sufficient illustration. What is meant, for instance, by poetic justice? ?It does not mean a justice that differs by its object from the ordinary justice of human jurisprudence; for then it must be confessedly a very bad kind of justice; but it means a justice that differs, from common forensic justice by the degree in which it attains its object, a justice that is more omnipotent over its own ends, as dealing? not with the refractory elements of earthly life, but with the elements of its own creation, and with materials flexible to its own purest preconceptions. It is certain that, were it not for the Literature of Power, these ideals would often remain amongst us as mere arid notional forms; whereas, by the creative forces of man put forth in literature, they gain a vernal life of restoration, and germinate into vital activities. The commonest novel, by moving in alliance with human fears and hopes, with human instincts of wrong and right, sustains and quickens those affections. Calling them into action, it rescues them. from torpor. And hence the preeminency, over all authors that merely teach of the meanest that moves, or that teaches, if at all, indirectly by moving. The very highest work that has ever existed in the literature of Knowledge is but a provisional work: a book upon trial and sufferance, and quamdiu bene se gesserit. Let its teaching be even partially revised, let it be but expanded, ? nay, even let its teaching be but placed in a better order, ? and instantly it is superseded. Whereas the feeblest works in the Literature of Power, surviving at all, survive as finished and unalterable amongst men. For instance, the Principia of Sir Isaac Newton was a book militant on earth from the first. In all stages of its progress it would have to fight for its existence: 1st as regards absolute truth; idly, when that combat was over, as regards its form or mode of presenting the truth. And as soon as a La Place, or anybody else, builds higher upon the foundations laid by this book, effectually he throws it out of the sunshine into decay and darkness; by weapons won from this book he superannuates and destroys this book, so that soon the name of Newton remains as a mere nominis umbra,† but his book, as a living power, has transmigrated into other forms. Now, on the contrary, the iliad, the Prometheus of Aeschylus, the Othello or King Lear, the Hamlet or Macbeth, and the Paradise Lost are not militant but triumphant forever as long as the languages exist in which they speak or can be taught to speak. They never can transmigrate into new incarnations. To reproduce these in new forms, or variations, even if in some things they should be improved, would be to plagiarize. A good steam engine is properly superseded by a better. But one lovely pastoral valley is not superseded by another, nor a statue of Praxiteles by a statue of Michael Angelo. These things are separated not by  imparity, but by disparity. They are not thought of as unequal under the same standard, but as different in kind, and, if otherwise equal, as equal under a different standard. Human works of immortal beauty and works of nature in one respect stand on the same footing: they never absolutely repeat each other, never approach so near as not to differ; and they differ not as better and worse, or simply by more and less: they differ by undecipherable and incommunicable differences, that cannot be caught by mimicries, that cannot be reflected in the mirror of copies, that cannot become ponderable in the scales of vulgar comparison.

Experimental Works on the Effects of Metal Forming Speed

Chapter Four Experimental Plants 4.1 Introduction: This chapter will foreground the experimental work conducted to look into the consequence of metal organizing velocity on the backward-forward combined bulge procedure of polygonal and cylindrical cross subdivision cup saloon form components.. Subsequently, an rating of the extrude specimens has been done to analyze the influence of the procedure on the emphasis distribution in lead specimens. The experimental process consisted of the followers: –Material choice for bulge dice, clouts and workpiece readying.Found. The chemical composings workpiece and for dice, cloutsDesign and fabrication of dice of the backward-forward bulge and typesof Pistons used.Determination of the backward-forward bulge parametric quantities.Execution of the backward-forward bulge procedure.4.2 Materials. 4.2.1 Choice of the work-piece: – The note stuff used in this survey for bulge procedure is ( 99.99 % ) commercially pure lead and its chemical composing listed in Table ( 4.3 ) . Lead can be used as a theoretical account for a figure of metals at different strain rates and temperatures because of similarities in footings of Stress-Strain curves. This is utile in the survey of flow metal in the forming procedure. Equally good as its ability to re-crystallization at room temperature its composing is similar to the hot forming procedure for steel which leads to the absence of strain hardening in this metal. Lord has yielded emphasis, which varies in sum between ( 6-8 MPa ) and the temperature runing point is ( 327 Â °C ) [ 10. Lead is a extremely dense, corrosion opposition and really soft ductile stuff. As shown in figure ( 4-1 ) , A grid has been printed in the forepart of the as shown in figure ( 4-2 ) . Tip for mensurating the supplantings of each point after distortion by the burden required for bulge. Figure ( 4-1 ) : the pure leadFigure ( 4-2 ) : he pure lead Before printed grid printed grid Properties of lead in item are given in table 4.1.The thermic belongingss of pure lead 99 % are as shown. Table 4.1Mechanical belongingss of lead from the documentsMechanical belongingssstatusDensity11300 kg/m3298.15 KYoungaˆYs Modulus of Elasticity16000MPaPoisson Ratio0.44Thermal Expansion Coefficient29e-6298.15 KTable 4.2 Thermal Properties from the documents 4.2.2 Determination of stuff belongingss In the present probe pure Lead ( 99 % pure ) is used as work stuff. Different belongingss of lead stuff like flow emphasis, clash factor, etc. are determined utilizing different compaction method. These belongingss are used in upper edge simulation utilizing FORTARN90. In compaction trial, a big sum of distortion can be achieved before break. 4.2.3 Compression trial This is the simplest compaction trials in which a cylinder compressed axially between smooth platens. This gives the same output emphasis at a tensile trial with little strains when home bases are good lubricated. Friction coefficient at the die face additions as the strain addition a specimen spreads out. From compaction trial we flow emphasis of the stuff can be determined. A lead solid cylinders with two halves 40mm diameter and 70mm length is compressed between good lubricated smooth home bases every bit good as in dry status to find the clash coefficient in greased and dry status both. Due to flux of material diameter additions as length lessenings. By turning operation excess stuff removed to acquire initial diameter. The trial is repeated three times and mean true emphasis vs. true strain graph is plotted from unit of ammunition note with cosine and taper dice are besides discussed in this subdivision. Specimens chemical composing proving 4.2.4 Chemical composing of the metal. The metal, which is used in this survey, is ( 99.99 % ) commercially pure lead. The chemical composings of this stuff as shown in listed in Fig 4.3which is found in the computing machine –controlled Iraqi Ministry of Industry and Minerals The State Company for Inspection & A ; Engineering, Rehabilitation ( SIER ) & A ; BY Central Organization for standardisation and Quality Control as shown in listed in fig 4.4 Fig.4.3 the list of concentrations of elements found within the pure lead specimen Fig.4.4 the list of concentrations of elements found within the pure lead specimen. 4.3 Application of Grid The grid can be applied to the specimens by the followers: –Hand composing or scribing: The grids can be made on the specimens by manus or can be scribed by a crisp pointed acerate leaf. To cipher the strains in the specimen at all points each component of the grid will hold to be measured before and after striving. This method can be used for comparatively soft crystalline stuff like plastics.Machine scribing: Grid can be scribed by machine utilizing governing engines for level and cylindrical surfaces. The single elements in the grid may be indistinguishable and measurings need be made merely after striving. Machine scribed grids are used merely when trials are to be carried up to tear.Ink, pulling: Grid can be drawn with ink on theoretical accounts. The thickness of lines should be every bit little as possible to obtain more truth.Rubber togss: For soft, porous stuffs, thin gum elastic togss of 0.2mm diameter can be glued by latex and strain measurings may be made after lad ing.Photo grid method: Grid can be applied photographically by painting a light sensitive emulsion on the surface of the trial specimen, covering the surface with a maestro grid negative, exposing to strong visible radiation, and developing the end point print in the usual mode.4.4 Procedure of work Grid method is one of the methods of strain analysis, which is whole field in nature. In order to find supplantings and strain constituents at given points of randomly shaped surfaces a grid can be engraved on the surface to be studied. This grid acts as a mention component and the alterations that the grid experiences from the undeformed to the distorted conditions can be utilized to find either supplantings or strains. Two troubles are encountered which limit the usage of grids for mensurating distortions ; foremost, the strains to be measured are normally really little, and in most instances the supplanting readings are hard to do with sufficient truth. This is peculiarly true in stress analysis. However, this method is really much suitable for the survey of distortion in stuffs. Second, when the exposure of the grid web are magnified by the microscope, the images of the grid lines are normally ill defined presenting appreciable mistakes into the displacement readings. This method has the advantages that a photographic record of distortions covers the full field of the specimen. This record can be obtained for either inactive, dynamic elastic or fictile distortions. The strain was measured straight. The distance between the grid lines on the theoretical account was measured by a microscope by maintaining the magnification of microscope same before and after extruded. However, the tried pure lead specimens exhibit extremely accurate consequences when the little elastic distortion can be ignored and merely fictile distortions are taken into consideration.to implement a grid of a known constellation upon the specimens.a computing machine –controlled CNC machine, which is operated and found in the Iraqi Ministry of Industry and Minerals –Engineering Qualification and Testing Affairs Division, is utilized in fig ( 4.6. ) Fig ( 4.6 ) the Computer –Controlled CNC Machine and, pure lead specimen with grid. 4.4.1 Description of the computer–controlled CNC machine: The grids require some experience to derive in order to manage the computer-controlled CNC machine easy, therefore the device is consisted of the following chief parts 1-The Operation-panel As shown in fig ( 4.7 ) . The operating panel for the computer-controlled CNC is responsible for all the plans ( run by the DOS operating system ) needed to put to death the machining procedure onto the workpiece and for organizing scenes. Fig ( 4.7 ) The Operation-panel 2-Machining tool: As shown in fig ( 4.8 ) , The CNC MACHINE has some jaw where the machining tool can be fixed, and this is directed by utilizing the co-ordinate scenes found in the operation panel in order to get at the needed machining operation. Fig ( 4.8 ) of Machining tool Pure lead specimen requires some surface finish skyline trial to accomplish before grid execution processes a machining tool that is attached to a dial gage holding an truth about 1. The grid method was used to cipher the supplanting in the X-axis ( u ) and in Y–axis ( V ) . The dimensions of the grid were ( 70 mm?40 millimeter ) and the length of the square is ( 2mm ) as shown in figure ( 4-9 ) . Fig ( 4-9 ) the scan of pure lead specimen after The grid was photographed before and after backward-forward bulge of the pure lead specimens and the measurings of the supplantings was taken by microscope so scan it for all the specimens. Then the strains at the surface squares gird were calculated in the specimen the strains in the specimen at all points each component of the grid will hold to be measured before and after striving. Finally, the consequences and different boundary conditions were compared with upper edge solution consequences The grid was photographic before and after the rhythm of the sample and the measurings of the supplantings was taken by microscope for all the samples In add-on to the usage of the plan compared to the knock -dimensional images Photography are taken before and after distortion and compare the consequences with theoretical consequences as shown in fig ( 4.10 ) for some specimens before and after bulge Fig ( 4.10 ) shown The specimens of lead after bulge with hexangular clout Fig ( 4.11 ) shown The specimens after bulge with round cloutFig ( 4.12 ) The some specimens after bulge 4.5 The experimental work: – Experimental surveies are carried out with a position to compare the experimental consequences with the theoretical 1s obtain from proposed method of analysis, and upper edge method are carried out from commercially machine available for bulge of The dice with cone angle of ( 120 ) and polygonal clouts ( hexangular ) .the machine have three regardful velocity to compression the stuff at ( 0.002,0.00 3,0.004 ) m/s which are used in our survey, Three decrease countries of dies ( 30 % , 0.50 % , ) are used a cylindrical and hexangular Piston diameters of 40 millimeters and 30 millimeter as shown Fig ( 4-8 ) , crown out of the metal and a diameter of 25mm,15 millimeters and 10mm slots so have been a rounding each diameters of the Pistons. Experiments are done for both backward-forward bulge procedure. Commercially available lead is used for workpecies experiment when used low metal steel for organizing dice of the backward-forward bulge procedure. An bulge apparatus for laboratory experi mentation is designed and the chief of the of the backward-forward bulge theoretical account, consists of four parts ; viz. , the container holding a round chamber, the squeeze outing clout, bulge dice holder and the back uping block for the assembly. Fig ( 4.13 ) shown hexangular clout and round clout 4.6 Die design and fabrication The sets of backward – frontward bulge dice ( at three different per centum country decrease ( 0.30,0.50 ) % . ) , are employed for experimentation.by two allow diameter dice 15mm, 25mm with bulge procedure lead, and a cylindrical Piston diameters of 40 millimeters and 35 millimeter and 30 millimeters piston hexangular diameters of 40 millimeters and 35 millimeter and 30 millimeter and for present analysis. The inside informations of the bulge dies are presented in Figures ( 4.12 ) & A ; ( 4.13 ) . Fig ( 4-14 ) OF The parts of dice Fig ( 4-15 ) OF The parts of dice Have been utilizing AUTO-CAD plan for die design as shown in fig ( 4-10 ) and so was manufactured by the workshops of the Iraqi Ministry of Industry and Minerals The State Company for Inspection & A ; Engineering, Rehabilitation ( SIER ) utilizing this operating machine and lathe in add-on to making high- preciseness surface about 0.51?m after it has been carry oning minutess Calories appropriate for the templet and before used. Fig ( 4-16 ) dicedesign by AUTO-CAD plan Figure ( 4-17 ) OF The some parts of dice after design Figure ( 4-18 ) OF The some parts of the dice after fabrication and surface coating operations 4.7 Chemical composing of the metal of the dice parts. The metal, which is used in this survey, commercially low metal steel. The chemical composings of this stuff as shown in listed in Fig ( 4.-16 ) which is found in the computing machine –controlled Iraqi Ministry of Industry and Minerals The State Company for Inspection & A ; Engineering Rehabilitation ( SIER ) Figure 4.19 the list of concentrations of elements found within low metal steel used to decease 1

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